IVMCTWIWntllMII 


Cyclopedia  of  Painting 

Containing  Useful  and  Valuable  Information 
on  the  Following  Subjects 


Adulteration  of  Paint — Blistering  of  Paint — Brushes — Cal- 
cimining — Carriage  Painting — China  Painting — Colors — 
Color  Harmony — Color  INIixing — Color  Testing — Exte- 
rior   Painting— Gilding— Graining— House  Painting  — 
Marbling — Mildew — Oils  and  Driers — Oil  Painting 
on  Glass — Painting  a  Bath  Tub — Painting  in  Dis- 
temper— Paperhanger's    Tools — Paperhanging 
— Pigments  —  Plain   Oil   Painting  —  Primary 
Colors — Priming — Scenic   Painting  —  Sign 
Painting — Stains — Staining — Stencilling 
— Turpentine — Varnishes — Varnishing 
— Water  Color  Painting — When  Not 
to    Paint  —  Practical     Points     on 
Painting  —  Useful    Information 

BY 

GEORGE  D.  ARMSTRONG 


OVER    100    ILLUSTRATIONS 


CHICAGO 

FREDERICK  J.  DRAKE  &  CO.,  PUBLISHERS 

1908 


Copyright,  1906. 
By  Fbeoebick  J.  Drake  &  Ca 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  character  of  this  work  is  indicated  by  its  title. 
The  topics  are  treated  with  a  view  to  technically  instruct 
those  who  desire  to  make  a  study  of  the  art  of  painting 
as  practised  in  the  paint-shops  of  this  country. 

Every  effort  has  been  made  to  ensure  accuracy  in  all 
the  statements  made.  The  employment  of  engravings, 
wherever  it  was  necessary  to  more  fully  explain  the  text, 
will  be  found  to  add  greatly  to  the  value  of  the  work, 
while  the  many  extended  articles  will,  it  is  believed,  be 
interesting  even  to  those  who  read  only  for  information 
on  general  topics. 

The  book  is  one  easy  of  consultation,  virtually  a 
Cyclopedia,  and  readily  distinguishable  from  a  collection 
of  scientific  treatises. 

The  Author. 


CYCLOPEDIA  OF   PAINTING 


CYCLOPEDIA  OF  PAINTING. 


ADULTERATION  OF  PAINT. 

To  understand  this  subject  intelligently  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  possess  some  slight  knowledge  of  chemistry  and 
of  the  materials  used  by  chemists,  but  any  intelligent  person 
can,  by  careful  reading  of  these  descriptions,  test  substances 
qualitatively  without  the  aid  of  expensive  apparatus  or  ex- 
ternal assistance  of  any  kind.  For  quantitative  analysis 
a  delicate  chemical  balance  will,  of  course,  be  required. 
Take  paints  first.  White  lead  is  now  very  seldom  sold  in  the 
dry  state,  but  samples  are  occasionally  met  with.  Its  cover- 
ing power  being  superior  to  that  of  any  other  known  paint, 
it  is  very  largely  used,  and  it  is  frequently  adulterated 
with  substances  of  inferior  quality.  The  most  common  adul- 
terants are  sulphate  of  baryta  and  chalk. 

Sulphate  of  Baryta.  Treat  a  small  quantity  with  dilute 
nitric  acid,  and  heat  on  the  sandbath.  If  any  insoluble  re- 
mains, it  is  either  sulphate  of  barj'ta  or  insoluble  silicates. 
Filter,  take  a  portion  of  the  insoluble  on  a  piece  of  clean 
platinum  wire  moistened  with  hydrochloric  acid,  and  test 
at  the  blowpipe.  If  the  flame  be  colored  green,  the  precip- 
itate is  sulphate  of  baryta.  By  moistening  the  wire  in 
hydrochloi'ic  acid  the  green  color  is  reproduced  many  times. 

Insoluble  Silicates.  If  no  green  color  appears,  the  in- 
soluble is  a  silicate.  This  may  be  proved  by  forming  a  bead 
with  microcosmic  salt  on  a  loop  at  the  end  of  the  platinum 
wire,  and  taking  some  of  the  precipitate  on  this  bead,  fusing 
it  again  in  the  blowpipe  flame.  If  small  infusible  particles 
whirl  around  within  the  bead  while  in  the  flame,  the  pres- 
ence of  silicates  in  the  precipitate  may  be  inferred. 

5 


6  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  PAINTING 

Chalk.  The  presence  of  chalk  can  only  be  ascertained  after 
separating  the  lead.  This  is  best  done  by  adding  ammonia 
solution  to  the  nitric  acid  solution  until  alkaline,  then  sul- 
phate of  ammonia  in  excess,  and  boiling  for  five  minutes. 
Filter  ofit"  the  black  precipitate  which  is  formed,  and  to  the 
tiltrate,  first  tested  with  an  additional  drop  or  two  of  sul- 
phate of  ammonia  to  insure  the  removal  of  the  whole  of  the 
lead,  add  ammoniac  oxalate.  If  a  white  precipitate  appear, 
it  is  calcic  oxalate.  Test  a  portion  of  this  precipitate  at  the 
blowpipe.  A  brick-red  color  imparted  to  the  flame  verifies 
the  presence  of  chalk. 

White  Lead.  The  presence  of  lead  should  be  ascertained. 
This  is  indicated  by  the  black  precipitate  given  v;ith  sul- 
phate of  ammonia.  It  may  be  best  ascertained  by  boiling 
the  nitric  acid  solution  to  expel  the  free  nitric  acid,  adding 
dilute  sulphuric  acid  to  the  clear  solution,  dissolving  the 
white  precipitate  of  sulphate  of  lead  thus  formed  in  ain- 
inoniac  acetate,  and  adding  potassic  ehromate  to  this  solu- 
tion. A  heavy  yellow  precipitate  (ehromate  of  lead)  forms 
when  load  is  {)resent. 

Sulphate  of  Baryta  and  Silicates.  Take  20  grains  of  the 
sample,  treat  with  dilute  nitric  acid  as  before.  The  quan- 
tity taken  for  analysis  may  be  weighed  in  a  watch-glass  or 
a  small  basin,  but  should  be  transferred  to  a  beaker,  and  the 
glass  or  basin  washed  with  distilled  water  before  the  acid  is 
added.  If  this  precaution  be  not  taken,  and  the  acid  added 
directly  in  the  watch-glass  or  basin,  to  be  washed  into  the 
beaker  afterwards,  the  violent  effervescence  which  takes 
place  on  the  addition  of  the  acid  will  occasion  considerable 
loss  by  spurting.  If,  after  heating  with  nitric  acid,  an  in- 
soluble remains,  a  few  crystals  of  chlorate  of  potash  may 
be  added  to  the  boiling  liquid  to  insure  the  solution  of  all 
soluble  substances.  The  boiling  is  continued  for  a  few 
minutes,  then  cold  water  is  added,  and  the  whole  passed 
111  rough  a  filter.  The  insoluble  on  the  filter  is  washed  with 
Iiof    water    until    the    water   leaving   the    filter   is    no   longer 


ADULTERATION   OF  PAINT  7 

acid  to  litmus  paper.  It  is  then  dried  on  the  water-bath, 
ignited,  and  weighed.  Test  at  blowpipe  as  before.  Sulphate 
of  bai'yta  and  silicates,  if  both  present,  are  not  usually 
separated. 

Weighing  Precipitates.  This  general  direction  applies  to 
almost  all  precipitates.  If  strong  acids  or  acid  and  chlorate 
of  potash  are  used,  the  liquid  should  invariably  be  diluted 
before  filtering.  In  washing,  allow  the  whole  of  the  wash 
water  to  drop  from  the  filter  before  adding  more  water. 
When  thoroughly  washed,  fold  the  filter  paper  flat  in  the 
funnel,  or,  better,  transfer  the  filter  paper  and  its  contents 
to  a  large  watch-glass  or  flat  basin,  and  dry  on  a  water-bath. 
When  dry,  carefully  unfold  the  filter  over  a  quarto  sheet  of 
stiff  glazed  paper,  with  a  feather  brush  off  every  particle  of 
the  precipitate  adhering  to  the  filter  paper,  collect  the  pre- 
cipitate on  the  glazed  paper,  again  using  the  feather,  and 
cover  over  the  precipitate  with  the  funnel.  Fold  the  filter 
paper  till  it  assumes  the  appearance  of  a  solid  cylinder  about 
one  inch  in  length,  and  ignite  with  the  Bunsen  burner  over 
a  weighed  platinum  or  porcelain  capsule.  After  a  while  the 
filter  paper  becomes  a  charred  mass  of  smaller  dimensions, 
and  drops  from  the  wire  into  the  capsule.  The  wire  is 
cleaned  into  the  capsule,  by  means  of  the  feather,  of  any 
adhering  particles,  the  charred  paper  is  crushed  with  a  glass 
rod,  and  ignited  over  a  Bunsen  until  the  ash  is  no  longer 
black.  The  capsule  is  then  stood  on  a  porcelain  slab,  and  the 
precipitate  carefully  transferred  from  a  glazed  paper  into 
the  capsule,  the  feather  being  employed  to  remove  the  last 
traces.  The  capsule  is  then  ignited  over  an  Argand  burner 
until  the  weight  is  constant.  The  filter  paper  must  always 
be  ignited  before  the  bulk  of  the  precipitate  is  transferred 
to  the  capsule. 

White  Lead.  The  nitric  acid  solution  obtained  a&  before 
is  boiled  nearly  to  dryness,  and  if  a  precipitate  forms  a  little 
water  is  added,  then  dilute  sulphuric  acid  in  small  quantity, 
and  the  boiling  continued  for  some  minutes  to  expel  the  last 


8  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  PAINTING 

trace  of  nitric  acid.  An  excess  of  sulphuric  acid 
is  then  added  to  precipitate  the  whole  of  the  lead 
and  lime  as  sulphates,  which  appear  as  a  white 
heavy  powder.  The  beaker  and  its  contents  are  then  cooled 
by  immersion  in  cold  water.  When  cool,  double  the  bulk 
of  alcohol  is  added,  and  the  whole  allowed  to  stand  for  some 
time — over  night  if  possible.  It  is  then  filtered  and  washed 
with  alcohol  until  the  washings  are  no  longer  acid,  dried, 
ignited  in  a  porcelain  capsule,  and  weighed  as  above.  From 
the  weight  obtained  deduct  .05  grain,  the  amount  of  ash 
contained  in  an  ordinary  Swedish  filter  paper,  the  remainder 
multiplied  by  five  for  the  percentage  of  sulphate  of  lead, 
and  (if  chalk  is  present)  this  again  by  .852  for  the  percentage 
of  white  lead.  If  the  sample  contains  chalk,  the  percentage 
of  white  lead  must  not  be  estimated  until  the  percentage  bf 
chalk  is  determined.  The  percentage  of  chalk  is  converted 
into  its  equivalent  of  sulphate  of  lime.  This  latter  de- 
ducted from  the  percentage  of  sulphates  of  lead  and  lime, 
and  the  remainder  multiplied  by  .825  for  the  percentage  of 
white  lead. 

Chalk.  The  readiest  way  to  estimate  chalk  is  to  divide 
the  nitric  acid  solution  obtained  above  into  two  equal  parts, 
in  one  estimate  the  lead  as  above  (multiplying  the  weight 
found  by  ten  instead  of  five),  and  in  the  other  estimate  the 
chalk.  The  lead  is  removed  with  ammoniac  sulphide  in  the 
manner  described  before,  to  the  clear  filtrate,  ammoniac 
oxalate  is  added,  if  chalk  is  present,  a  white  precipitate  of 
calcic  oxalate  is  produced.  This  precipitate  is  assisted  in 
its  separation  by  boiling.  Then  collected  on  a  filter,  washed 
with  hot  water,  dried  and  weighed.  The  ignition  is  complete 
when  the  contents  of  the  capsule  assume  a  tinge  of  gray 
color.  The  weight  obtained  after  deducting  .05  grain  of 
filter  ash  is  multiplied  by  ten  for  the  percentage  of  chalk. 
In  inexperienced  hands  it  will  be  better  to  ignite  strongly 
and  weigh  as  lime,  multiplying  by  ten  for  percentage  of  lime 
and  by  1.7857  for  percentage  of  chalk.    This  chalk  may  be 


ADULTERATION   OF  PAINT  9 

converted  into  sulphate  of  lime  by  multiplying  by  1.36,  and 
the  product  deducted  from  the  percentage  of  lead  and  lime 
obtained  above,  prior  to  calculating  the  percentage  of  white 
lead.  The  chalk  precipitate  should  be  tested  at  the  blow- 
pipe for  its  characteristic  brick-red  flame.  Some  analysts 
treat  the  mixed  precipitate  of  sulphate  of  lead  and  calcium 
with  concentrated  solution  of  ammoniac  acetate,  and  weigh 
the  insoluble  as  chalk.  This  method  is  unreliable.  The  oil 
must  first  be  burnt  off,  and  the  ignition  continued  until  no 
black  carbonaceous  matter  remains.  It  must  be  ignited  in  a 
porcelain  basin  over  an  Argand  burner,  turned  low  at  first 
and  gradually  raised.  The  ignition  must  be  completed  over 
a  Bunsen.  Much  time  is  saved  and  the  analysis  rendered 
more  accurate  by  spreading  the  mixed  paint  in  a  thin  layer 
over  the  bottom  of  the  basin,  and  when  the  ignition  is  nearly 
complete,  by  crushing  the  scaly  crust  with  a  glass  rod,  care- 
fully remove  the  adhering  pieces  on  the  glass  rod  by  means 
of  a  feather.  The  difference  in  weight  before  and  after  igni- 
tion represents  the  oil  plus  loss  by  reductions  of  white  lead 
to  metallic  lead.  The  residue  is  washed  into  a  beaker  with 
water  as  before,  and  afterwards  with  nitric  acid.  The  metal- 
lic lead,  which  adheres  strongly  to  the  bottom  of  the  basin, 
must  be  rubbed  vigorously  with  the  end  of  a  glass  rod  until 
entirely  removed.  This  requires  a  little  patience,  but  it 
yields  to  persistent  rubbing.  The  remainder  of  the  process 
is  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  dry  white  lead. 


BLISTERING   OF  PAINT. 

In  the  following-  lines  are  laid  down  some  general  rules 
that  govern  this  phenomenon^  and  from  the  same  draw  some 
practical  conclusions,  the  object  of  which  will  be  to  set  the 
question  at  rest.  The  blistering  of  paint  is  in  a  large  measure 
traceable  to  the  position  of  the  surface,  it  is  usually  found 
on  work  presenting  a  south  aspect,  or  exposed  to  the  full 
rays  of  the  sun.  As  a  defect  it  is  associated  with  the  sum- 
mer season,  winters  being  opposed  to  its  action.  The  deduc- 
tion to  be  drawn  from  this  is  that  it  is  the  effect  of  heat. 
Paint  is  a  body  both  mineral  and  metallic,  made  into  a 
plastic  condition  by  oil,  the  object  of  which  is  to  keep  out 
the  moisture  from  exposed  surfaces  in  buildings,  and  to  offer 
on  intei-nal  work  a  uniform  and  pleasing  surface  to  the  eye. 
The  oil  used  is  linseed,  which  by  boiling  attains  setting  or 
drying  qualities  and  becomes  better  by  keeping,  its  thick 
or  heavy  nature  when  loaded  with  mineral  and  metallic 
matters  being  reduced  for  Avorking  purposes  by  spirits  of 
turpentine,  a  volatile  spirit  that  is  a  mere  aid  to  the  spread- 
ing of  paint.  Paint  so  largely  composed  of  oil  will  never 
fairly  set  or  assume  a  dry  state.  However  dry  and  brittle 
if:  may  appear,  it  is  capable  of  being  rendered  soft  and 
plastic  by  the  application  of  heat,  and  hence  the  hand  stove 
of  the  painters  is  the  most  ordinary  instrument  for  the  re- 
moval of  old  paint.  We  mention  this,  for  it  is  clear  that, 
approach  the  subject  as  Ave  will,  we  find  heat  the  prime  cause 
of  the  blistering  of  paint.  Closing  in  with  the  subject,  and 
bringing  it  into  narrower  lines,  blistering,  properly  speaking, 
is  wholly  confined  to  wood  as  a  base  or  groundwork.  It  is 
true  it  is  not  unknown  to  iron  or  plaster,  but  in  these  cases 
it  is  variant  in  form,  and  not  blistering  in  the  true  sense  of 
the  term.    The  blistering  of  paint  on  iron  is  not  traceable  to 

10 


BLISTERING   OF  PAINT 


11 


the  softening  of  the  paint,  and  the  shelling  up  of  the  same, 
but  to  water  making  its  way  to  the  naked  iron  through  some 
crack  or  defect  in  the  paint,  and  becoming  an  active  agent  in 
oxidization.  The  blister  thus  forced  is  clearly  the  separa- 
tion of  the  film  of  paint  from  the  iron  by  the  formation  of 
rust  upon  the  face,  which,  as  a  foreign  material,  forms  an 
effectual  separation  of  the  two  bodies.  The  extension  of 
these  blisters  is  dependent  upon  the  supply  of  water,  and, 
unlike  the  true  blister,  is  not  dependent  upon  heat  or  a 
south  or  sunny  aspect.  The  blistering  of  paint  on  iron  occurs 
in  any  aspect  or  position,  in  the  full  light  or  in  the  dark, 


Fig.   1.     Ordinary   Paint   Brush. 


in  the  summer  or  the  winter,  the  destructive  agent  being 
water,  it  is  dependent  upon  no  other  conditions.  The  blister- 
ing of  paint  upon  plaster  is  in  a  large  degree  analogous  to 
that  of  iron,  inasmuch  as  it  is  formed  by  the  disintegration 
of  the  base  by  the  action  of  water.  Painted  plaster-work, 
so  long  as  water  can  be  kept  from  percolating  through  the 
cracks  or  faults,  or  gaining  entrance  from  above  by  filtra- 
tion, or  from  below  by  capillary  action,  is  a  highly  durable 
material,  but  the  moment  water  gains  a  footing  the  lime 
in  some  degree  is  dissolved,  and,  upon  being  removed  and 
redeposited,  undergoes  the  process  of  I'ecrystallizatioji,  a 
powdery  substance  is  thus  formed  that  comes  as  a  s,tranger 


12  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

between  the  paint  and  the  plaster,  in  wliich  respect  it  bears  a 
strong  resemblance  to  rust,  the  result  of  the  oxidization  of 
iron.  Large  faces  of  plaster  are  subject  to  fractures  from 
expansion  under  the  heat  of  the  sun,  or  from  the  lifting 
the  upper  members  of  a  building,  consequent  upon  the  adm 
sion  of  water  from  gutters  or  copings,  the  lifting  being  t. 
result  of  secondary  crystallization  set  up  in  the  joints  ot 
mortar.  This  is  an  explanation  of  the  fact  that  the  blister- 
ing of  paint  always  occurs  in  the  neighborhood  of  craeks 
or  fractures  in  the  plaster,  and  is  more  pronounced  in  tht 
cornice  or  upper  part  than  in  any  other  part  of  a  building. 
In  proof  of  its  being  the  result  of  crystallization,  the  face 
of  the  plaster  is  always  found  to  be  covered  over  with 
powdered  lime.  The  painter,  finding  this,  takes  care  to 
saturate  the  disintegrated  face  of  the  framework  in  effect- 
ing repairs,  but  this,  as  he  finds  to  his  chagrin,  is  no  protec- 
tion against  a  recurrence  of  the  evil,  for  so  long  as  water  or 
moisture  is  admitted  at  any  point,  so  long  will  this  abnormal 
llistering  ensue.  The  blistering  of  paint  upon  plaster  work, 
like  that  upon  iron,  is  not  dependent  upon  heat,  it  is  a 
chemical  action  set  up  by  water  upon  a  body  of  dry  lime 
in  a  partial  state  of  crystallization,  it  is  caused  by  the 
lime  dissolving,  and  its  removal — it  may  be  but  in  an  infini- 
tesimal degree — and  its  recrystallization.  Upon  the  water 
evaporating,  the  result  is  a  dry  powder  that  works  an  ef- 
fectual separation  between  the  film  of  paint  and  the  ground- 
work of  plaster,  and  it  does  not  attach  itself  to  either  of  the 
bodies,  but  remains  a  powder  until  the  film  of  paint  or 
blister  is  removed,  when  it  may  be  dusted  off  with  a  brush. 
The  blistering  of  paint  upon  wood  is  distinct  in  its  order, 
and  is  the  general  blister  known  in  the  trade.  It  occurs  on 
the  face  of  woodwork  exposed  to  the  sun,  and  is  traceable 
to  the  influence  of  heat.  It  is  not  pronounced  in  the  case 
of  new  work,  where  the  body  of  paint  is  not  great;  but  it  is 
a  great  evil  and  an  eyesore  on  old  work,  where  the  coats  of 
paint  are  layered  one  on  the  other.    Wood,  as  a  groundwork. 


BLISTERING  OP  PAINT  13 

is  a  porous  body  highly  charged  with  moisture  in  a  natural 
state,  and  never  free  from  it  in  a  so-called  dry  state  when 
used  in  exposed  situations.  It  may  be  taken  that  wood,  dur- 
2;  the  winter  season,  or  one-half  of  the  year,  is  absorbing 
aoisture.  This  is  seen  in  outer  doors,  gates,  sliding  sashes, 
jnd  shutters,  as  the  carpenter  is  constantly  being  called  into 

'  requisition  to  ease  the  same.  This  moisture,  so  largely  pres- 
ent in  the  atmosphere,  cannot  be  kept  out  of  the  wood 
by  the  most  careful  painting.     In  store  fronts  it  has  ready 

racct'ss  to  the  back  of  the  woodwork,  the  face  sides  being 
the  only  ones  which  are  painted,  in  doors  and  gates  it  is 
absorbed  from  the  sills  or  the  ground,  from  the  fact  that 
the  lower  edges  are  unpainted.  There  is  always  some  por- 
tion of  the  woodwork  hidden  from  the  eye  which  is  un- 
painted, and  there  the  system  of  absorption  is  active  during 
the  winter  or  rainy  season.  Wood  in  this  state  during  the 
hottest  days  in  summer  will  make  efforts  to  thi'ow  off  this 
moisture.  Then  the  heat  of  the  sun  is  applied  with  great 
force  to  the  painted  face,  and  the  unpainted  face  is  in  the 
cold  shade.  The  effect  of  this  powerful  heat  is  to  draw  the 
moisture  to  the  face  of  the  wood,  where  its  course  is  arrested 
by  the  sundry  impervious  coats  of  paint,  it  is  here  generated 
into  ste.im,  the  expansive  power  of  which  forces  away  the 
paint,  and  the  familiar  blister  is  formed.  Paint,  as  a  mineral 
or  metallic  body,  does  not  incorporate  with  the  wood,  it 
simply  adheres  thereto,  forcing  its  fronds,  so  to  speak,  in 
the  pores  of  the  wood,  and  filling  up  the  interstices  formed 
by  the  bundles  of  fibers.  Hence  we  find  that  paint  fails  to 
adhere  to  highly  resinous  or  greasy  woods,  and  the  knots 
themselves,  from  being  hard  and  compact,  must  be  faced 
with  knotting  composition  as  a  ground  for  the  paint. 


BRUSHES. 

Cheap  goods  of  any  kind  never  reflect  credit  on  the  maker. 
Neither  do  they  give  satisfaction  to  the  consumer  or  dealer. 
It  requires  skill  and  art  as  well  as  quality  of  material  to 
produce  high  grades  of  goods,  and  such  must  always  bring 
their  price  and  never  fail  to  give  satisfaction.  For  this 
reason,  the  intelligent,  practical  and  thoughtful  workman 
will  alwaj's  look  for  the  best  tools.  Good  bristle  brushes  can- 
not be  made  of  any  substitute  for  imported  bristles,  and 
cheaper  grades  are  always  produced  by  adulteration  and 
mixtures.    The  cheapening  of  goods  is  generally  done  so  that 


Fig.  2.      Badger  Hair   Flowing  Brush. 

it  shows  least  to  the  eye,  in  the  center  of  the  brush,  and 
covered  by  good  quality  to  make  the  goods  as  marketable  as 
possible.  Such  goods  cannot  be  expected  to  be  durable  or 
give  satisfaction. 

First-class  goods  can  also  be  ruined  or  lose  half  their 
value  if  they  are  not  properly  cared  for.  Paint  and  varnish, 
as  well  as  calcimine  and  whitewash  brushes,  should  never  be 
allowed  to  stand  on  the  ends  of  bristles  over  night,  but  should 
always  be  cleaned  thoroughly  before  quitting  work,  and  care- 

14 


BRUSHES  15 

fully  bung  up,  paint  and  varnish  brushes  in  oil  or  varnisb, 
and  calcimine  and  whitewash  to  dry.  It  will  injure  any 
brush  to  let  it  remain  in  water.  Should  paint,  varnish, 
leather-bound  whitewash  or  wall  brush  be  found  that  has  be- 
come loose  from  shrinkage,  take  a  tablespoonful  or  so  of 
Mater,  open  the  brush  and  pour  the  water  into  the  center. 
This  will  swell  the  parts  and  make  the  brush  as  firm  as  when 
first  made. 

New  brushes  when  first  put  in  work  are  apt  to  shed  any 
loose  bristles  that  have  not  been  fastened  when  made,  and  * 
while  such  loose  bristles  are  always  cleaned  out  before  the 
goods  are  put  up  for  market,  not  all  such  loose  bristles  or 
hair  can  be  cleaned  out,  and  such  are  sure  to  come  loose 
when  the  brush  is  first  used.  This  defect  will  cure  itself  in 
one   day's   use. 

Do  not  condemn  the  maker  if  one  brush  is  brought  back 
by  a  practical  workman,  who  possibly  has  had  one  or  more 
brushes  out  of  the  same  dozen  that  were  all  right  and  gave 
perfect  satisfaction,  but  look  for  the  cause  or  defect  in  the 
user.  Remember  that  goods  are  made  up  in  large  quantities, 
and  when  the  bristle  is  prepared  it  is  in  large  batches.  It 
must  naturally  follow  that  if  one  brush,  or  one  dozen,  or  any 
quantity  of  such  a  lot  is  good  that  all  must  be,  or  if  one  is 
bad  all  must  be  so. 

The  greatest  annoyance  that  manufacturers  have  to  con- 
tend with  is  the  improper  or  careless  use  and  care  of  good, 
first-class  brushes. 

Good  goods  of  all  kinds  are  a  credit  to  the  manufacturer, 
give  satisfaction  to  the  mechanic  in  use,  and  pleasure  and 
profit  to  the  dealer  to  sell.  They  are  sure  to  bring  their 
own  reward. 

Brushes  are  made  of  bristles  and  of  hair,  bound  to  a 
handle  by  cord,  wire,  metal  stamped  to  imitate  wire,  tin, 
copper  and  brass.  The  oval  and  round  paint  and  varnish 
brushes  are  generally  bound  with  cord,  wire  or  its  imita- 
tions, and  copper  and  brass.     The  flat  bristle,  fitch,  badger. 


16  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

bear  and  camel 's-hair  brushes  with  tin.  The  ordinary  paint 
brushes  contain  the  inferior  or  coarser  grades  of  bristles, 
the  varnish  brushes  are  selected  or  finer  qualities.  The  oval 
and  round  brushes  are  numbered  by  the  brush-maker  to 
designate  sizes,  from  No.  6  down  to  No.  1.  thence  from  one 
0  to  000000.  For  carriage  painting  the  sizes  between  one 
and  four  naughts  are  considered  best,  the  smaller  ones  may 
be  used,  but  it  is  advantageous  to  use  as  large  a  brush 
as  possible  on  most  of  the  Avork.  Small  brushes  called  tools 
are  numbered  from  1  up  to  10,  the  latter  being  the  largest. 
Brushes  are  genei'ally  used  in  sets,  as,  for  example,  in 
painting  a  body  or  gear,  a  large  brush  for  laying  the  paint 
would  be  used,  and  a  small  tool  for  cleaning  up  around 
the  moldings,  nuts  and  bolt-heads.  It  would  be  an  almost 
endless  task  to  illustrate  and  describe  all  of  the  many 
varieties  of  paint  and  varnish  brushes,  and  a  few  of  the 
principal  ones  only  will  receive  attention  here.  Russia  is 
the  great  bristle  growing  country,  and  her  exports  reach  as 
high  as  5,000  tons  of  this  commodity  every  yeai'.  Hogs  in 
countless  herds  roam  the  deep  Muscovite  forests,  where  the 
oak,  the  pine,  the  beech,  larch  and  other  nut  bearing  trees 
cover  the  ground  with  acorns  and  nuts  to  the  depth  of  a 
foot  or  more.  But  these  swine  are  not  all  of  value  for 
their  bristles.  The  perfect  bristle  is  found  only  on  a 
special  race,  and  that  race  fattened  in  a  certain  way.  On 
the  frontiers  of  civilization  all  over  the  Muscovite  territory 
are  the  government  tallow  factories,  where  aiiiinals  reared 
too  far  from  the  habitation  of  men  to  be  consumed  for 
human  food  are  boiled  down  for  the  sake  of  their  fat.  The 
swine  are  fed  on  the  refuse  of  these  tallow  factories  at  cer- 
tain seasons,  and  become  in  prime  condition  after  a  few 
months'  feeding.  It  is  from  these  animals  that  the  bristles 
of  commerce  mainly  come.  When  the  swine  are  fattened, 
and  their  bristles  in  fine  color,  they  are  driven  in  kraals 
so  thickly  that  they  can  scarcely  stand — irritated  and 
goaded   by    the   herdsmen    till    they    are    sullen    with    rage — 


BRUSHES 


17 


kicking,  striving,  struggling-  and  scrambling  together  in 
feverish  rage,  they  are  seized  one  by  one,  by  the  kak  koffs, 
a  class  of  laborers  educated  to  plucking  swine,  a»nd  their 
bristles  pulled  out  by  the  roots.  The  perspiration  into 
which  the  poor  creatures  are  thrown  by  their  exercise 
causes  their  bristles  to  yield  easily.  The  process  is  pleas- 
ant neither  to  the  eye  nor  the  ear.  The  hog  strenuously 
resists  with  loud  outcries,  and  vehement  opposition.  It 
does    no    good.      Once    seized,    he   is    instantly    divested    of 


Fig.    3.     Fitch    Varnish    Brush. 


his  clothing  and  then  immediately  released,  goes  grunting 
off  to  the  woods. 

The  so-called  French  bristles  are  principally  from  Rus- 
sia stock,  cleaned  and  bleached  to  render  them  white  and 
exceedingly  elastic,  yet  soft  as  an  infant's  hair.  From 
these  are  made  the  fine  pencils  of  the  artist.  Length,  elas- 
ticity, firmness  and  color  are  elements  that  constitute  their 
excellence,  and  the  bristle  expert  can  readily  assort  them 
for  their  special  uses. 

The  ordinai-y  paint  brush  for  general  work  is  made  either 
from  selected  Russia  bristles,  or  with  an  inferior  gray 
center,  inclosed  by  fine  white  bristles.     Can-iage  and  wagon 


18  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  PAINTING 

painters  usually  select  the  best  Russia  bristles,  and  the 
size  known  as  0000  is  used  for  rough-stuff  and  foundation 
coats,  while  the  house  painter  would  choose  a  larger  one 
possibly.  A  new  brush  of  this  description  will  not  work 
well  unless  bridled,  that  is  having  an  extra  binding  added, 
and  this  may  be  done  in  several  ways. 

By  winding  a  strong  cord  around  the  bristles  to  about 
the  middle  of  the  same,  or,  as  far  from  the  original  bind- 
ing as  desired.  By  covering  a  portion  of  the  bristles  with 
leather  stitched  on  tightly.  By  wrapping  a  piece  of  muslin 
around  the  brush,  then  tying  a  cord  at  the  center  of  the 
bristles  turn  the  muslin  back  and  tie  it  securely  to  the 
handle.  By  using  a  patent  metallic  band  or  binder,  and 
by  other  means,  the  object  being  to  shorten  the  exposed 
bristles  until  the  brush  is  partly  worn  down,  when  the 
extra   binding  may   be  removed. 

Badger-Hair  Varnish  Brush.  The  badger-hair  brush  is 
next  in  importance.  It  is  well  bound  in  tin,  hair  set  in 
glue,  handle  nicely  japanned,  and  chisel-pointed.  For  var- 
nishing small  panels  or  parts  of  a  body  it  has  no  equal. 
The  best  badger-hair  is  imported  on  the  skin  fi-om  Germany 
and   Russia. 

Camel's-Hair  Brush.  For  laying  fine  color  no  better 
brush  can  be  had  than  the  camel 's-hair  brush,  called  by  some 
mqttlers,  by  others  blenders,  and  again  by  others  spal- 
ters,  each  term,  however,  is  foreign  to  the  American  painter, 
and  the  camel 's-hair  brush  is  by  far  the  most  appropriate, 
and  most  commonly  used.  The  hair  used  in  these  brushes, 
however,  is  not  all  taken  from  the  camel,  much  of  it  being 
from  the  tail  of  the  Russian  brown  squirrel.  The  hair  is 
first  cut  from  the  tail  with  scissors,  the  wool  or  under  fur 
combed  out,  and  then  tied  in  bunches  ready  to  be  straight- 
ened. This  requires  skill  and  practice.  The  hair  is  placed 
in  metal  cups  having  a  thick,  loaded  bottom,  and  by  quick 
motion  of  the  hand,  drummed  on  the  bench  for  a  consider- 
able time,  until  the  pointed  or  fine  ends  are  all  even  with 


BRUSHES  19 

each  other.  In  the  process  of  cutting  and  cupping  the 
lengths  are  kept  separate  as  far  as  possible.  The  hair  is 
now  ready  for  the  brush-maker,  who  cups  and  combs  it  out, 
weighs  the  quantity  required,  and  places  it  into  the  ferrules 
or  tin  bands.  It  requires  skill  to  handle  the  short,  slippery 
hair  and  keep  it  in  shape.  It  is  not  many  years  since 
work  of  this  kind  was  all  done  abroad.  Now,  it  is  claimed 
by  experts  that  the  American  manufacture  of  most  kinds 
of  brushes  excels  the  foreign  goods.  The  chiseled  camel 's- 
hair  brush  is  something  entirely  new,  and  is  certainly  a 
very  fine  brush  and  well  calculated  to  do  smooth,  particular 
work.  Another  class  of  these  goods  are  made  extra  thick 
and  from  picked  camel 's-hair,  the  binding  of  brass  having 
its  edge  turned  under,  which  gives  additional  security  to 
the  hair  and  prevents  cutting  the  hair  on  the  edge  of  the 
binding,  which   too  frequently  happens. 

Camel's-Hair  Tool.  Small  brushes,  called  tools,  made 
of  camel 's-hair  are  used  for  blacking  irons,  lacquering, 
and  other  work  of  like  nature.  The  next  brush  to  be  con- 
sidered is  the  camel 's-hair  duster,  a  tool  used  mostly  by 
gilders  in  removing  the  loose  gold  leaf  from  their  work 
when  gilding.  These  are  bound  in  split  quill  and  fastened 
with  wire.  The  next  to  claim  attention  is  the  gilder's 
camel 's-hair  tip.  This  is  made  by  laying  a  thin  layer  be- 
tween two  pieces  of  card-board  and  gluing  the  whole  firmly 
together;  it  is  used  to  lift  and  carry  to  the  work  the  pieces 
of  gold  leaf.  A  slight  moisture  or  stickiness  is  given  the 
hairs  by  simply  passing  them  over  the  face  or  hair  of  the 
head,  and  then  the  gold  leaf  can  be  easily  lifted  from 
the  cushion  on  which  it  has  been  cut  and  dexterously  laid 
upon  the  gilding  size. 

For  painting  walls  a  large  flat  bristle  brush  is  used,  made 
of  all  white  bristles,  bound  in  copper,  brass  or  galvanized 
iron.  It  has  always  been  a  difficult  task  to  make  a  wall 
brush  to  stand  the  hard  usage  it  generally  receives,  but 
now  that  machinery  of  the  most  approved  pattern  has  been 


20 


CYCLOPEDIA  OF  PAINTING 


introduced  in  the  brush  factory  these  brushes  are  made 
under   warranty. 

Flat  Bristle  Varnish  Brush.  These  are  made  of  the  best 
white  bristles,  set  with  glue,  doubled  nailed,  soft  yet  very 
elastic,  with  chiseled  points.  They  are  considered  the  best 
brush  made  by  many  of  the  best  varnishers.  They  are  put 
up  in  sets  from  one  inch  in  width  to  three  inches.  These 
brushes,  if  used  with  care,  will  wear  a  long  time. 

Flat  Chiseled  Brush.  Flat  paint  brushes  are  preferred 
by  some.  These  are  chiseled  or  ground  off  on  the  sides  to 
form  a  thin  edge.  They  are  bound  in  tin  or  rubber  and 
are  graded  in  size  by  their  width. 


Fig.    4.     Flat    Varnjsh    Brush. 


Flattened  Round  Tool.  This  is  superior  to  the  sash  tool 
for  cleaning  between  the  spokes,  and  for  finishing  around 
the  various  parts  of  the  gear.  This  brush  is  tin-bound,  well 
riveted,  and  the  bristles  are  set  in  glue,  which  is  insoluble 
in  turpentine  and  oil,  and  therefore  superior  to  the  cement 
used  by  some  brush-makers.  The  size  best  suited  for  the 
carriage  painter  is  about  one  and  a  quarter  inches  in  width. 
This  is  also  an  excellent  tool  for  varnishing,  in  trimming 
up  around  moldings. 

Fitch-Hair  Brush.  This  brush  was  formerly  in  extensive 
demand  as  a  varnish  brush  but  of  late  years  the  badger  has 


BRUSHES  21 

supplanted  it,  owing,  in  a  degree,  to  the  numerous  imita- 
tions in  the  market,  and  also  to  the  liability  of  the  rotting 
away  or  breaking  of  the  hairs  when  in  use.  The  hair  is 
mostly  from  the  tail  of  the  skunk. 

Sash-Tool.  A  sash  tool,  or  small  brush,  is  necessary  as 
an  auxiliary  to  the  large  brush,  for  cleaning  up  in  corners, 
etc. 

Oval  Varnish  or  Paint  Brush.  As  the  under  parts  of  a 
carriage  are  not  rubbed  with  lump  pumice-stone,  the 
same  as  the  body,  the  paint  must  be  applied  with  greater 
care,  and  the  000  oval  brush  will  work  best,  laying  the 
paint  smoothly  and  leaving  but  few,  if  any,  brush  marks. 
The  chiseled  brush  should  always  have  preference  over  a 
partly  worn  one,  as  the  bristles  are  as  a  rule  softer  upon 
their  extreme   ends. 

The  Care  of  Brushes.  However  good  a  brush  may  be 
it  will  soon  be  ruined  unless  it  is  properly  treated  when  out 
of  use.  The  following  hints  will  suffice  as  a  guide  in  this 
respect : 

Writing  Pencils.  Wash  in  turpentine  until  quite  clean, 
and  if  they  are  not  to  be  used  for  some  time,  dip  in  olive 
oil  and  smooth  from  heel  to  point. 

Stipplers.  Wash  thoroughly  in  pure  soap  and  hot  water, 
rinsing  with  cold  water.     Place  point  downwards  to  dry. 

Varnish  Brushes.  The  best  method  of  keeping  varnish 
brushes  is  to  suspend  them  in  the  same  description  of  var- 
nish as  that  they  are  used  for.  As  this  is  not  always  pos- 
sible, boiled  oil  may  be  used  instead. 

Brushes  made  for  Use  in  Color  should  first  be  soaked 
well  in  water  to  swell  the  bristle  in  the  binding.  This  ap- 
plies also  to  whitewash  brushes  which  are  bound  either  by 
wire  or  leather. 

A  Brush  after  use  should  be  thoroughly  cleansed  out  in 
turps  or  soap  and  water.  If  left  in  water  any  length  of 
time  they  are  liable  to  twist,  and  the  bristles  lose  their 
elasticity. 


22  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

A  Brush  made  for  Paint  should  not  be  used  in  varnish, 
the  spirit  of  which  dissolves  the  cement  with  which  it  is  set, 
and  loosens  the  bristles.  "When  a  ground  brush  has  been 
well  woi-n  down  in  color,  it  may  be  used  in  varnish. 

Varnish  Brushes  when  not  in  use  should  be  suspended  in 
either  varnish  or  oil,  the  brush  not  resting  on  the  bristles. 
No  brushes  should  on  any  account  be  kept  in  tuipentine. 

Stippling  Brushes  should  be  well  cleaned  and  dried  after 
use,  the  bristle  being  carefully  kept  from  crushing;  a  box 
in  which  they  can  be  slid,  allowing  the  bristle  to  hang 
downwards   is  recommended. 

Should  a  Brush  become  quite  hard  with  Paint  it  should  be 
soaked  for  twenty-four  hours  in  raw  linseed  oil,  after  which 
time   in   hot   turpentine. 

Cleaning  Paint  Brushes.  All  brushes,  after  being  used, 
should  be  carefully  cleaned.  This  is  best  effected  by  im- 
mersing the  hair  of  the  brushes  in  a  little  raw  linseed  oil, 
the  oil  should  afterwai'ds  be  washed  out  with  soap  and 
w^arm  water,  till  the  froth  which  is  made  bj'  rubbing  the 
brushes  on  the  palm  of  the  hand  is  perfectly  colorless.  The 
brushes  should  next  be  rinsed  in  clean  water,  and  the  water 
pressed  out  by  a  clean  towel.  The  hair  should  then  be 
laid  straight  and  smooth,  and  each  brush  restored  to  its 
proper  shape,  by  passing  it  between  the  finger  and  thumb, 
before  it  is  left  to  dry.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  break 
the  hair  by  too  violent  rubbing,  as  that  would  render  the 
brushes  useless.  Many  painters  use  turpentine  instead  of 
linseed  oil  in  the  cleaning  of  brushes,  it  effects  the  object 
more  quickly,  but  the  only  use  of  turpentine  that  should 
be  permitted  is  to  rinse  the  brushes  in  it  slightly  when  it 
is  required  to  clean  them  quickly,  but  on  no  account  should 
they  be  permitted  to  remain  soaking  in  turpentine,  as  this 
practice  is  certain  to  injure  the  brushes,  rendering  the  hair 
harsh  and  intractable,  and  frequently  dissolving  the  cement 
by  which  the  hair  is  held  in  the  socket  of  the  handle. 


BRUSHES 


23 


iSiili  F-T  '    '■ .  ■-! ;  " 

wm'i''  vi'i,''i'M'''v''i''';':ij)''';V-,r:,;'i 

Mu,  ;/:;,^'l;'ir^(i:!i:^'';7';:!V:!',-,| 

Fig.  5.  Oval  Chiselled  Varnish  Brush. 


CALCIMINING. 

Plaster  ceilings  are  usually  finished  with  calcimine,  which, 
besides  the  advantages  of  cheapness  and  of  covering  in 
one  coat,  where  with  oil  paint  three  would  be  required, 
shows  superiority  in  many  other  respects. 

In  places  where  people  congregate,  the  moisture  in  the 
atmosphere,  unless  the  ventilation  of  the  apartment  is  ex- 
ceptionally good,  will  condense  upon  a  painted  surface  and 
run  down  the  walls.  When  calcimine  is  used  in  such  situa- 
tions, no  unpleasant  effect  is  seen,  the  distempered  surface 
will  absorb  the  moisture  for  the  time  being,  and  ultimately 
give  it  forth  again  without  any  detriment  to  its  color. 

This  property  of  distemper  also  indicates  the  necessity 
of  removing,  with  brushes  and  water,  all  old  coloring  and 
calcimine  from  the  ceiling,  instead  of  which,  the  dirty  un- 
healthy coating  is  in  many  cases  coated  over  with  size.  The 
size  binds  the  dirt,  and  the  opacity  of  the  distemper  does 
not  show  the  dirt  through,  nevertheless,  it  is  a  practice  to 
be  condemned  by  all  who  desire  sanitary  homes.  This  labor- 
saving  plan  would  be  used  to  a  greater  extent  but  for  the 
fact  that  continuous  coats  of  distemper  and  size  soon  dis- 
cover the  bad  worker  by  the  surface  cracking  and  peeling 
off,  owing  to  excess  of  size. 

When  about  to  calcimine  a  ceiling,  the  first  thing  is  to 
have  the  room  as  clear  as  possible,  and  to  protect  the  wall- 
paper. 

Next  with  hot  water  thoroughly  wash  off  from  the  ceiling 
the  old  calcimine,  being  careful  to  wash  only  the  ceiling, 
and  not  to  let  the  dirty  water  run  down  the  wall-paper  nor 
splash   about. 

It  is  important  to  have  the  board  at  such  a  height  from 
the  floor  that  the  ceiling  can  be  comfortably  reached.  Have 

24 


CiVLCIMINING  25 

at  each  end  of  the  board  a  pair  of  steps.  Now,  with  a  pail 
of  clean  hot  water,  a  distemper  brush,  a  large  piece  of 
sponge,  and  a  piece  of  coarse  canvas  on  a  board  or  table, 
start  at  one  corner  of  the  room  to  lay  or  soak  in  a  patch 
with  water,  gently  stirring  the  old  distemper  with  the 
brush.  Get  the  old  distemper  thoroughly  soaked,  then 
wash  it  off  with  the  canvas,  finishing  with  the  sponge,  fre- 
quently rinsed  in  water.  This  is  to  get  rid  of  every  trace 
of  the  old  distemper.  This  is  a  most  important  process, 
which  cannot  be  too  strongly  insisted  upon.  Neglect  in  this 
part  of  the  work  will  result  in  a  dirty  or  uneven  appear- 
ance in  the  finished  ceiling.  If  only  the  loose  portions  are 
removed,  even  the  most  skilful  application  of  calcimine 
cannot  hide  the  patches.  They  will  be  either  of  a  different 
color  or  else  will  show  the  shade  from  a  different  level  of 
surface.  Do  not  wet  the  surface  more  than  necessary,  and 
frequently  change  the  water  as  it  gets  dirty.  Sometimes  the 
calcimine  is  especially  difficult  to  get  off  on  account  of  the 
original  coat  having  been  bound  down,  as  it  is  called,  in- 
stead of  having  been  washed  off  before  it  was  last  calci- 
mined,  which  is  very  often  done  for  the  sake  of  cheap- 
ness. Liquid  ammonia  in  a  separate  pail  half  full  of 
water  will  greatly  assist  when  soaking  bound  distemper. 
Avoid  touching  the  wall-paper  with  the  brush,  but  finish 
the  last  inch  or  so  of  margin  with  the  sponge  or  canvas. 

When  the  surface  of  the  ceiling  has  dried,  any  rough 
patches  there  may  be  should  be  scraped  or  rubbed  smooth. 

If  there  are  any  cracks  in  the  ceiling,  run  the  point  of 
a  small  trowel  along  them,  to  clear  out  any  loose  bits;  with 
a  sash-tool  wet  the  parts  of  the  ceiling  where  the  cracks 
are,  and  then,  using  a  stopping-knife,  fill  them  in  with  plas- 
ter of  Paris  mixed  with  water  in  which  a  little  alum  has 
been  dissolved.  A  little  whiting  mixed  with  the  plaster 
will  keep  it  from  setting  too  quickly. 

Or  mix  fine  plaster  of  Paris  with  glue  size,  and  fill  up 
holes    and    cracks,    and    when    dry    level    with    a    knife    or 


^6 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   PAINTING 


coarse  glass-paper.  Whiting  mixed  with  glue  water  is  also 
suitable.  Use  a  square  piece  of  wood  to  mix  the  cement 
upon,  and  nail  a  handle  to  the  other  side. 


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Fig.   6.      Wall   Brush. 


If  the  cracks  are  bad,  they  should  be  cut  out,  the  face 
of  the  plaster  on  each  side  cut  away  for  half  an  inch,  and 
the  gap  then  finished  to  a  level  surface  with  plaster  laid 


CALCIMINING  27 

on  with  a  small  trowel.  A  broad  thin  strip  of  wood  with 
a  bevelled  edge  is  very  useful  when  stopping  plaster  walls, 
for  in  trying  to  stop  a  crack  or  hole  with  a  sharp  steel 
stopping  knife,  the  surrounding  face  of  the  plaster  may  be 
badly  scratched,  which  is  only  seen  when  the  job  is  finished. 

Repairing  should  be  done  to  new  ceilings  before  the  finish 
is  applied,  and  to  old  ceilings  at  the  time  they  are  washed 
off,  that  is,  when  the  old  coating  of  dirty  distemper  is  re- 
moved with  water  and  brushes. 

If  necessary,  when  dry,  the  ceiling  can  be  rubbed  quite 
smooth  with  glass-paper,-  and  is  then  ready  for  re-calcimin- 
ing,  after  which,  if  carefully  done,  the  repaired  cracks  will 
be  invisible. 

If  there  are  stains  in  the  ceiling  that  cannot  be  removed 
by  washing,  the  stain  should  be  painted  white,  in  flat  color 
or  paint  mixed  with  turpentine.  If  this  has  to  be  done,  it 
will  be  well  to  paint  also  the  filling  with  which  the  cracks 
have  been  stopped. 

Finally,  the  ceiling  should  be  rubbed  down  with  a  cloth 
previous    to    applying   the    calcimine. 

To  prepare  the  calcimine,  break  into  large  pieces  about 
four  balls  of  whiting,  and  put  them  into  a  pail,  and  just 
cover  the  material  with  water,  let  it  stand  all  night.  In 
the  morning  pour  off  all  water  that  will  run  away,  and 
thoroughly  mix  the  wet  whiting  by  hand  until  it  becomes 
a  thick  even  paste.  Add  about  half  an  egg-cupful  of  dry 
ultramarine  blue,  stirring  it  well  in  with  the  whiting.  Next 
put  2  pounds  of  patent  size  in  a  saucepan  over  the  fire, 
with  only  just  sufficient  water  to  keep  it  from  burning, 
and  stirring  it  all  the  time,  taking  great  care  that  it  neither 
boils  nor  burns.  When  it  is  thoroughly  dissolved,  pour  it 
on  the  whiting,  and  mix  the  whole  well  together.  The 
proportion  of  size  is  about  one  teacupful  to  two  gallons  of 
the  mixture.  Now  set  it  aside  in  a  cool  place  until  it 
turns  to  a  jelly.  When  it  is  quite  cold,  with  a  distemper 
brush   rub   it   through   a   coarse   piece   of   canvas  stretched 


28  CYCLOPEDIA   OP   PAlNTINa 

over  the  top  of  a  clean  pail,  and  it  will  then  be  ready  for 
use. 

Before  commencing  the  actual  calcimining,  lightly  rub 
over  the  whole  of  the  ceiling  with  a  piece  of  fine  glass- 
paper,  to  take  off  any  little  knots  or  brush-hairs  left  on 
the  finishing  coat.  Then  dust  the  ceiling  before  proceeding 
to  whiten  it. 

In  laying  on  the  wash,  a  large  flat  brush  should  be  em- 
ployed, and  if  this  is  not  over-charged  a  ceiling  or  wall 
may,  with  a  certain  amount  of  care,  be  white  or  color- 
washed with  little  or  no  splashing.  The  way  to  lay  the 
distemper  on  is  not  to  take  up  too  much  in  the  brush, 
and  not  to  flick  the  brush  at  the  end  of  each  stroke,  or  you 
will  splash  everything.  "Work  the  brush  in  any  direction, 
but  be  sure  that  everj-  part  of  the  ceiling  is  covered  with 
the  calcimine  taking  care  to  keep  the  edges  of  the  patches 
going,  that  is,  do  not  let  any  edge  get  dry  before  coming 
to  it  again.  To  do  this,  it  is  essential  to  have  a  scaffold 
that  is  easily  movable  from  one  end  of  the  room  to  the 
other.  The  calcimining  must  be  done  very  expeditiously,  and 
any  ceiling  over  14  feet  square  should  not  be  attempted 
single-handed  without  some   previous  practice. 

Ceilings  should  always  be  calcimined  by  working  away 
from  the  light.  Two  men  are  required  to  do  a  good-sized 
ceiling-flat;  they  should  start  at  the  window  end,  and,  keep- 
ing their  work  in  one  general  line,  spread  the  distemper 
from  the  end  as  far  towards  the  center  as  they  can  both 
conveniently  reach.  The  scaffold  is  then  brought  forward 
and  another  shift  covered,  and  so  on  until  the  whole  ceiling 
is  finished.  The  solvent  used  for  distemper  work  being 
water,  it  will  be  seen  that  extreme  heat  or  a  draught  of  air, 
such  as  will  evaporate  the  water,  is  to  be  avoided  during 
the  process,  but  so  soon  as  a  ceiling  is  completed,  the  ob- 
ject is  to  dry  it  off  as  quickly  as  possible,  and  hence  it  is 
well  to  open  every  door  and  window  to  create  a  draught. 

Properly  executed  distempering  should  have  a  level,  but 


CALCIMINING 


29 


Fig.  7.     Wall  Brush. 


30  CYCLOPEDIA   OF  PAINTING 

not  perfectly  smooth,  surface,  which  should  show  no  joints 
or  coarse  brush-markings,  and  should  have  a  perfectly  dead 
appearance,  be  solid  and  uniform  throughout,  and  should 
not  rub  off  by  ordinai^y  wear  or  leaning  against. 

Distemper  of  any  kind  should  never  be  spread  over  old 
or  dirty  stuff,  these  should  be  first  washed  off.  An  expect 
will  not  flap  his  brush  in  working  well-made  distemper, 
but  will  use  the  tip  of  the  brush  only,  and  make  very  little 
noise.  Calcimine  or  any  distemper  can  be  laid  on  in  any 
direction  from  the  outer  or  working  edge.  Splashes  result 
from  the  use  of  watery  wash  and  want  of  experience  in 
working'. 

A  distemper  brush  should  be  worn  oft'  a  trifle  before 
being  used  to  whiten  a  ceiling.  The  work  of  washing  off 
a  ceiling-  will  be  sufficient  to  wear  down  a  new  brush  to  a 
fit  condition.  After  the  brush  is  done  with,  wash  it  out 
thoroughly  and  lay  it  by,  before  attempting  to  use  it,  soak 
it  in  water,  or  the  hairs  may  fall  out,  through  it  being  too 
dry.  This  last  caution  applies  to  nearly  all  brushes  used 
in  house  decorating. 

If  there  is  a  delicate  ornamental  cornice  in  the  room 
that  cannot  be  got  at  with  the  ordinary  distemper  brush, 
a  smaller  brush,  called  a  distemper  tool,  is  used  both  for 
the  washing  off  and  whitening.  In  the  whitening-,  push 
this  brush  up  into  the  ornamented  parts.  It  does  not  much 
matter  how  the  distemper  is  laid  so  long  as  it  is  put  on 
evenly,  and  all  the  surface  covered. 

There  appears  to  be  an  idea  that  a  new  ceiling  requires 
some  special  treatment  before  it  is  calcimined,  but  this  is 
not  so.  Providing  that  the  ceiling  has  been  left  by  the 
l>histerer  in  a  proper  condition,  it  is  a  more  simple  job 
than  wliitening  an  old  one,  on  account  of  there  being  no 
washing-off  or  making-good  to  do.  The  most  ordinary  cause 
of  failure  is  that  the  ceilings  are  not  thoroughly  dry  before 
the  wliitewash  is  put  on.  If  there  is  the  least  sign  of  sweat- 
ing or  moisture  on  the  ceiling,  it  mav  be  taken  to  indicate 


CALCiMiNma  31 

that  the  ceiling  is  not  dry,  and  if  this  is  so,  no  amount  of 
care  in  making  or  putting  on  the  calcimine  will  make  the 
ceiling  white.  Another  cause  of  failure  may  be  due  to  the 
fact  that  some  people  do  not  consider  it  neeessaiy  to  finish 
a  new  ceiling.  This  is  also  a  mistake,  for  the  finish  stops 
absorption,  and  if  there  is  a  little  whiting  in  it,  it  helps 
to  cover,  and,  moreover,  makes  the  distempering  a  much 
easier  job,  as  it  prevents  it  dragging,  and,  to  use  a  paint- 
er's term,  the  distemper  spreads  like  butter.  The  addition 
of  a  little  alum  is  also  an  improvement  to  the  finish. 

The  following  is  a  brief  list  of  tints  that  are  most  usual- 
ly required  on  ceilings  and  the  method  of  producing  them: 

Cream.  A  variety  of  cream  colors  of  different  shades 
and  hues  are  produced  by  mixing  ochre,  which  gives  a  yel- 
lowish cast.  A  little  umber  or  Venetian  red  may  also  be 
added. 

Gray.  A  nice  effect  is  produced  by  a  gray  ceiling,  espe- 
cially when  the  walls  are  highly  colored.  Blue  black  is  the 
best  for  the  purpose. 

Green.  Very  light  greens  look  very  pretty,  but  if  they 
are  too  dark  the  effect  is  wholly  spoiled.  A  variety  of  lime 
greens  are  made  suitable  for  mixing  with  lime,  and  a  very 
small  quantity  will  be  required.  A  touch  of  blue  black  may 
also  be  added  when  a  neutral  green  is  required. 

Pink.  A  little  Venetian  red  gives  a  nice  pink,  but  if 
something  more  pronounced   is  required  lake  may  be  used. 

Blue.  A  large  variety  of  blue  tints  can  be  obtained  by 
using  the  color  sold  under  the  name  of  "lime  blue."  These 
blues  are  really  a  variety  of  ultramarine. 

Browns.  Very  light  browns  may  be  obtained  by  using 
sienna  or  umber  or  a  mixture  of  both. 

Almost  as  great  a  variety  of  colors  in  distemper  may  be 
obtained  as  in  oil  colors,  but  certain  colors  cannot  be  used 
with  whiting  at  all.  The  following  is  a  list  of  them :  Prus- 
sian   blue,   Antwerp    blue,    Naples   yellow,    veimilion,   lakes 


32 


CYCLOPEDIA  OF  PAINTING 


and  chrome  yellows.  White  lead  and  red  lead  are  also  un- 
suitable for  the  purpose. 

For  all  ordinary  distemper  work  one  of  the  many  sani- 
tary distempers  which  are  to  be  obtained  in  a  wide  range 
of  colors  is  recommended.  They  are  sold  in  di'y  form,  and 
require  but  the  addition  of  water  to*  render  them  ready  for 
use. 

The  secret  of  success  in  applying  distemper  is  to  get  as 
much    on    the    surface    as   possible   without   making   a   mess 


Fig.   8.      Wall   Brush. 


or  splashing  any  of  it  on  the  walls  and  floor.  The  brush 
must  be  used  smoothh-,  and  not  slapped  against  the  work! 
Dip  fairly  deeply  and  squeeze  out  some  of  the  calcimine. 
Then  apply  all  around  as  far  as  the  brush  will  reach.  Be 
very  careful  not  to  go  over  the  work  a  second  time.  Dis- 
temper is  unlike  oil  paint.  If  it  does  not  look  satisfac- 
tory when  applied,  the  only  thing  to  be  done  is  to  wash 
off  and  commence  again.  It  is  usually  necessary  to  have 
a  stick  in  the  pail  with  which  to  occasionally  stir  up  the 
mixture. 


CARRIAGE  PAINTING. 

After  the  body  is  completed  by  the  wood-worker,  the 
painter  gives  it  a  thorough  dusting  inside  and  out,  and  pro- 
ceeds to  prime  it.  Pouring  from  the  can  a  small  quantity 
of  filler  with  an  ordinary  paint  brush,  perfectly  clean,  or 
one  kept  for  the  purpose,  and  not  used  for  paint,  he  coats 
over  a  portion  of  the  body,  the  back,  or  one  side,  taking 
no  great  pains  to  spread  it  evenly,  he  may  daub  it  on,  then 
immediately  wipe  over  and  rub  in  every  part  with  rags. 
This  rubbing  with  rags  spreads  the  priming  evenly,  and 
forces  it  into  the  pores.  Go  on  in  this  manner  until  the 
whole  is  done,  over  wood  and  iron  alike,  leaving  no  surface 
coat  as  of  paint  or  varnish,  the  hand  should  scarcely  be 
soiled  or  greased  if  passed  over  a  finished  portion  of  the 
work.  The  canvased  parts  inside,  if  any,  may  be  painted 
with  slush  paint,  for  they  would  absorb  a  great  amount  of 
filler  with  no  corresponding  benefit.  It  cannot  be  too 
strongly  impressed  upon  the  mind  of  the  painter  desiring 
to  make  a  successful  use  of  the  filler,  that  it  must  be  put 
on  sparingly  and  be  well  wiped  or  rubbed  into  all  parts  of 
the  work,  and  that  only  one  coat  should  be  applied. 

The  body  should  now  be  set  aside  to  dry,  and  forty-eight 
hours  should  be  given,  unless  the  weather  is  favorable,  when 
the  time  may  be  shortened  to  36,  and  even  to  24  hours  with- 
out detriment.  There  will  be  a  thin  film  covering  the  hard 
parts  of  the  wood,  and  the  iron  work,  and  the  filler  being- 
composed  principally  of  oil  and  a  gummy  or  filling  sub- 
stance will  have  entered  the  pores  and  sealed  them  against 
the  entrance  of  dampness  or  the  liquids  from  subsequent 
coats  of  paint. 

Priming  the  Wheels  and  Under  Parts.  When  the  wheels, 
beds  and  bars  are  finished  by  the  wheelwright,  and  before 

33 


34  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

the  grain  of  the  wood  is  i-aised  by  the  atmosphere,  a  coat 
of  filler  is  put  on  every  part  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
body,  wiping  it  well  with  rags,  being  careful  to  coat  the 
bottom  of  bars  and  tread  of  wheels,  for  this  material  is 
a  bar  to  all  dampness,  and  will  thus  render  the  work  more 
durable.  This  preliminary  coat  is  not  properly  the  priming, 
for  it  is  put  on  to  prevent  the  grain  of  the  wood  from  ab- 
sorbing oil  and  dirt  from  the  smith's  hands,  and  to  prevent 
the  rims  or  felloes  from  swelling  with  the  water  used  in 
putting  on  the  tires.  When  the  ironing  is  completed,  every 
part  of  the  wood  is  sandpapered  and  filed  down  until  noth- 
ing but  clean  wood  and  iron  are  seen,  and  eveiy  trace  of 
filler  is  removed  from  the  surface — for  the  preliminary  coat 
has  fulfilled  its  mission. 

The  preparation  of  the  gears  at  this  stage  is  the  main 
operation,  for  if  they  are  well  done,  but  little  labor  re- 
mains to  be  accomplished.  The  priming  is  now  in  ordei', 
and  going  over  every  part  with  the  filler  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  at  first,  this  is  soon  ready  for  standing  aside  to  dry. 
The  wood  pores  are  sealed  up,  the  surface  of  the  wood  has 
a  thin  film  covering  it  as  also  the  ironwork,  and  a  more 
tenacious  coating  is  not  easily  found.  The  time  employed 
so  far  upon  the  gears  has  been  trifling,  compared  to  the  oid- 
fashioned  method  of  filling  up  with  white  lead  and  oil. 

White  Lead  Priming.  White  lead,  the  base  or  founda- 
tion, should  be  pure,  but  dealers  have  many  means  of  adul- 
terating it  with  sulphate  of  baryta,  or  barytes,  gypsum,  or 
plaster  of  paris  and  carbonate  of  lime,  or  common  chalk, 
all  of  which  are  detrimental.  Linseed  oil,  the  purest  raw 
oil,  should  be  used,  but  this  is  often  adulterated  with  fish 
oil  or  cotton-seed  oil.  The  next  requisite  is  pure  black,  in 
order  to  form  a  gray  or  lead  color.  With  these  ingredi- 
ents the  priming  is  formed.  The  white  lead  is  beat  up  with 
the  raw  oil  until  of  paint-like  consistency,  then  a  little  of 
the  black  is  added  to  form  a  clean  lead  color.  Some  add 
driers,  such  as  brown  japan  or  japan  gold  size,  but  many 


CARRIAGE  PAINTING 


35 


w'l.lliillJil.UiijIU 

Fig.   9.      Sash   Brushes. 


36  CYCLOPEDIA  OP   PAINTING 

prefer  to  use  none  whatever.  The  priming  thus  made  is 
now  spread  on  the  wood,  and  the  painter  runs  the  job  out 
in  the  drying  shed  or  other  convenient  place  to  dry.  The 
oil  of  the  priming  gradually  leaves  the  pigments,  white  lead 
and  black,  and  seeks  the  interior  of  the  Avood,  sucked  in, 
as  it  were,  by  capillary  attraction,  and  the  pigments  are 
thus  virtually  strained  and  left  upon  the  surface  in  a  semi- 
dry  porous  state,  Avhile  the  oil  that  entered  the  wood,  not 
being  a  gummy  or  filling  substance,  stains  the  interior  of 
each  little  pore  only.  Next,  a  coat  of  white  lead  and  oil 
of  similar  consistency  is  put  over  it.  The  oil  from  this 
coat  is  absorbed  in  by  the  porous  pigments,  through  which 
it  passes  and  spreads  itself  over  the  stain  which  the  first 
coat  gave  to  the  pores,  and  the  second  coat  pigments  are 
strained  and  left  porous,  so  on  until  possibly  five  coats 
of  lead  color  are  given,  by  which  time  the  pores  may  have 
become  filled  by  the  successive  layers  of  oil,  and  the  pig- 
ment on  the  surface  too,  is  finally  cemented  together  or 
partially  so.  This  is  called  the  foundation,  and  it  was  the 
only  known  way  to  paint  a  carriage  for  many  years. 

Rough- Stuff.  The  leveling  or  rough-stuff  coats  consist 
of  a  coarse  mineral  paint,  designed  to  level  down  or  fill  up 
all  imperfections  in  the  surface  of  the  carriage  body,  such 
as  plane  and  file  marks  or  brad  holes. 

The  pigment  is  mixed  with  oil,  japan  varnish  and  tur- 
pentine, and  although  the  painter  may  have  a  good  recipe 
for  this  paint,  and  may  mix  it  himself,  he  cannot  rely 
upon  getting  exactly  the  same  amount  of  elasticity  at  one 
time  as  at  another  time,  if  mixed  in  small  quantities.  There- 
fore the  ready-prepared  paint,  mixed  from  a  formula,  which 
experience  and  careful  tests  have  proved  best,  and  mixed 
in  large  quantities  by  weight  and  measure  is  bj'  far  the  sur- 
est and  safest  to  use.  The  filler  priming  on  the  body  being 
dry,  it  only  requires  a  good  dusting  when  it  is  ready  for 
the  rough-stuff.  This  for  the  first  coat  should  have  a  very 
little  raw  oil  added  to  make  it  more  in  keeping  with  the 


CARRIAGE  PAINTING  37 

elastic  priming,  and  it  must  not  be  spread  too  thick,  thick 
coats  are  apt  to  show  brush  marks,  and  brush  marks  in 
the  rough-stuff  will  show  in  the  finishing  varnish.  Put  the 
rough-stuff  on  smoothly  and  set  the  body  away  for  48  hours 
to  harden,  or,  if  preferred,  when  24  hours  have  passed  the 
largest  holes  may  be  puttied  part  full,  then  give  the  other 
24  hours  for  drying. 

The  second,  third  and  fourth  coats  of  rough-stuff  may 
be  put  on  one  day  apart,  then  a  thin  coat  of  stain,  to  guide 
the  workman  while  rubbing,  some  yellow  ochre  or  other 
cheap  pigment  mixed  in  japan  and  turpentine,  may  be  add- 
ed. 

Rough-stuff  will  always  give  better  satisfaction  when 
applied  in  a  medium  thin  coat.  It  is  entirely  against  com- 
mon sense  to  plaster  on  a  great  mass  of  this  paint,  with 
the   desire   to  level  the   work  quickly. 

When  the  work  of  rubbing  is  completed,  the  body  should 
be  washed  clean,  and  well  dried  off  with  a  chamois  skin, 
then  set  aside  for  the  evaporation  of  moistuve  from  the  por- 
ous paint. 

This  drying  out  is  of  vital  importance,  and  should  never 
be  neglected. 

Rough-stuff,  providing  it  is  good-rubbing  rough-stuff,  is 
necessarily  porous,  no  matter  what  pigment  or  vehicle  is 
used,  and  a  portion  of  the  water  used  in  rubbing  is  absorbed 
by  it,  therefore  it  is  essential,  after  the  moisture  has  all 
been  evaporated,  that  the  pores  be  closed,  in  order  that  the 
oil  of  subsequent  coats  may  not  be  absorbed  by  them. 

It  is  the  aim  in  this  system  of  painting  to  form  a  non- 
absorptive  surface,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  if  the  filler 
closed  up  the  pores  of  the  wood  it  will  assuredly 
close  up  the  pores  of  the  leveling  paint,  therefore,  a  coat- 
ing is  applied  to  the  rubbed  surface  of  paint  in  the  same 
manner  as  in  priming  the  wood,  wiping  off  all  that  will  read- 
ily leave  the  surface,  thus  rendering  the  paint  elastic,  yet 


38 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 


proof  against  the  entrance  of  oil  from  all  subsequent  coats 
of  color  or  of  varnish. 

Coloring  the  Body.  The  filler  put  on  over  the  rough-stuff 
having  been  allowed  from  24  to  48  hours  for  drying,  the 
coloring  is  now  in  order.  The  surface  must  not  be  disturbed 
by  sandpaper,  but  a  simple  dusting  off  may  be  necessary. 
It  is  customary  with  some  painters  to  lay  on  a  ground  coat 
of  some  color  corresponding  with  the  color  they  intend  to 
make  the  job,  but  this  is  more  to  economize  time  in  making 
a  solid  job  and  to  save  expensive  color,  and  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  few  extra  fine  or  transparent  colors,  which  are 
intensified  or  made  more  brilliant  by  application   over  par- 


Fig.   10.     stucco  Wall  Paint  Brush. 


ticular  grounds,  the  color  projier  may  bo  laid  directly  on 
the  prepared  surface. 

For  black,  either  lamp  black  or  coach  black  may  be  used 
for  the  first  coat,  having  sufficieut  oil  in  the  mixture  to 
cause  an  egg-shell  gloss,  lay  it  on  with  a  camel's  hair  brush 
and  give  12  hours  for  drying. 

To  better  illustrate  the  painting  of  a  body,  take,  for  ex- 
ample, a  job  to  be  painted  a  dark  grccMi.  w'licli  is  a  standard 
color  and  one  of  the  most  durable  colors  used  in  carriage 
work,  and  can-y  it  through  to  the  finish.  The  panels  only 
are  to  be  put  in  color,  the  remainder  to  be  black.  The  first 
duty  is  to  prepare  a  ground  or  ]ii-eparation  coat,  and  the 
following  will  be  found  a  good  foniiula : 

To   produce    a   dark    green    ground,   mix    lamp   black    and 


CARRIAGE  PAINTING  39 

chrome  yellow,  with  coach  japan  and  tuxpentine  to  a  proper 
consistency  for  grinding  in  the  mill,  approximating  as  nearly 
as  possible  the  desired  shade  of  green.  When  ground  add 
a  tablespoonful  of  raw  oil  to  a  pint  of  paint,  and  when  well 
stirred  together  test  its  drying  qualities  by  spreading  a 
little  on  the  thumb-nail  and  blowing  upon  it  to  hasten 
evaporation,  if  it  dries  dead  add  a  few  drops  of  oil  or  rub- 
bing varnish,  or  if  too  glossy  add  turpentine  until  an  egg- 
shell gloss   is  obtained. 

This  ground  work  or  preparation  coat  should  be  put  on 
with  a  camel 's-hair  brush  as  smoothly  as  can  be,  allowing 
no  laps  or  brush  marks   to   remain  visible. 

The  black  portions  are  next  to  be  done,  and  this  paint 
may  be  mixed  in  the  same  manner  as  the  green,  of  lamp 
black  or  ivory  black.  When  all  is  coated  set  the  job  aside 
to  dry  until  the  next  day,  at  which  time  it  should  be  well 
inspected  and  if  any  scratches  or  indentations  are  found, 
soft  dark  putty  must  be  used  to  fill  them,  then  rub  over 
gently  with  No.  1  sandpaper,  partly  worn,  to  prepare  it 
for  the  color  proper,  dark  green  and  ivory  black.  The  dark 
green  may  be  made  as  follows: 

Pulverize,  on  the  stone,  some  Dutch  pink,  and  mix  it 
with  half  and  half  japan  gold  size  and  turpentine  and  grind 
it  fine.  Then  mix  in  the  same  manner  some  Prussian  blue 
and  grind  it  into  another  cup.  Now,  little  by  little,  add  the 
blue  to  the  Dutch  pink,  stirring  it  constantly,  until  the  de- 
sired shade  of  green  is  obtained,  and  temper  the  mixture 
with  raAv  oil  in  the  same  manner  as  explained  for  the  ground 
coat.  Apply  with  camel 's-hair  brush.  The  back  parts 
may  now  receive  another  coat  of  ivory  or  drop  black.  If 
ready-mixed  colors  are  used,  instead  of  mixing  them  as 
above,  take  royal  gi'een  for  the  green  parts,  and  jet  black 
for  the  black  portions,  tempering  them  as  described  with 
oil. 

It  is  the  usual  custom  to  make  color-and-varnish  by  add- 
ing to  a  partly  filled  cup  of  varnish  a  little  color,  but  it 


40 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  PAINTING 


is  considered  best  by  some  of  the  first-class  painters  to 
grind  the  dry  pigment  directly  in  varnish,  and  thus  over- 
come the  objection  to  the  oil  and  turpentine  in  the  color- 
and-varnish.  However,  in  the  work  in  hand  it  is  desired  to 
produce  a  rich  or  deep  shade  of  green,  and  to  carry  out 
the  plan,  the  color  is  glazed,  instead  of  putting  on  color- 
and-varnish,  in  its  ordinary  mixture.  Yellow  lake  possesses 
the  power,  when  used  for  a  glazing  over  green,  to  increase 
the  intensity  or  depth  of  the  color,  and  many  handsome 
shades  are  made  in  that  way.    It  may  be  mixed  as  follows: 

Pulverize  the  lumps  and  mix  it  in  hard-drying  body  var- 
nish, grind   fine,   then   add   a  very  little  of  the  Dutch  pink 


Fig.  11.     Painter's  Duster. 


color.  Stir  well  and  apply  with  badger-hair  varnish 
brushes. 

The  black  parts  are  now  ready  for  color-and-varnish  and 
as  in  the  case  of  the  panels,  a  first-class  black  is  desired, 
so,  instead  of  using  ordinary  color-and-varnish,  black  japan 
is  used.  Three  coats  of  this  well  rubbed  with  pulverized 
pumice  between  each  coat,  will  give  a  good,  jet-black  surface 
for  finishing  over. 

The  glazed  panels  having  been  rubbed  lightly  with  pum- 
ice-stone, and  a  coat  of  hard  drying  body  varnish  given,  at 
the  time  the  black  japan  was  applied,  the  whole  is  now 
ready  for  a  final  rubbing  down  and  finishing  coat  of  wear- 
ing  body    varnish. 

The  Gears.     After  24  hours  apply  either  a  thin  coat  of 


CARRIAGE  PAINTING  41 

lamp  black  color,  or  a  thin  lead  color,  the  object  of  which 
is  to  see  the  open  grain  and  imperfection  so  that  putty  may 
be  used  to  plaster  over  and  fill  them.  The  surface  of  the 
filler  must  not  be  rubbed,  the  paint  should  be  applied  as 
smoothly  as  possible,  for  no  great  amount  of  sandpapering 
is  to  be  done.  Putty  all  imperfections  after  the  paint  has 
dried,  which  will  be  about  48  hours,  for  this  first  coat  over 
the  filler  should  be  a  little  more  oily  than  is  necessary  in 
any  other  coatings. 

When  the  putty  is  dry,  gently  rub  over  with  fine  sandpa- 
per, but  do  not  cut  through  the  paint.  When  done,  dust  off, 
ai^ply  the  color  and  color-and-varriish,  as  usual,  moss  down, 
give  a  second  coat  of  eolor-and-varnish,  rub  this  latter  with 
pumice-powder,  wash  off,  stripe,  and  give  a  coat  of  clear 
elastic  leveling  varnish,  let  dry,  rub  again  and  finish  with 
elastic  gear  varnish. 


CHINA  PAINTING. 

Mediums.  These  are  requisites,  and  upon  the  kind  used 
and  upon  their  qualit}'  depends,  to  an  extent  greater  than 
is  generally  supposed,  the  appearance  of  the  finished  work. 
The  mediums  are,  as  their  other  general  name  of  vehicles  in- 
dicates, the  carriers  of  the  paint,  the  means  by  which  it  may 
be  spread.  The  mediums  in  general  use  and  which  give  every 
satisfaction  are  of  two  kinds,  a  spirit  and  an  oil,  the  latter 
being  the  vehicle  projDer,  the  former,  the  thinning  agent  to 
render  practicable  the  spreading  of  the  mixed  oil  and  paint 
in  a  coat  of  any  desired  depth  or  thickness.  The  spirit  and 
the  oil  are  both  either  of  turpentine  or  of  tar,  spirit  and 
oi{  of  turpentine  being  used  together,  and  spirit  and  oil  of 
tar. 

Turpentine.  The  ordinary  turpentine  of  the  house-painter 
will  answer  the  purpose,  but  it  will  be  fount!  best  to  pro- 
cure rectified  spirits  of  turpentine  as  sold  by  the  druggist, 
which  is  as  clear  as  the  proverbial  crystal,  and  as  limpid 
as  the  purest  water.  The  common  turiDcntine  may  be  used 
for  washing  brushes.  The  oil  of  turpentine  is  also  known 
as  fat  oil.  It  is  viscid,  much  of  the  consistency  of  golden 
syrup,  and  has  something  of  the  color  of  clouded  amber. 
This  may  be  purchased  for  a  few  cents  a  small  bottle,  but 
it  may  be  prepared  from  spirits  of  turpentine  by  any  one, 
thus:  Into  a  flat  saucer  pour  a  little  spirits  of  turpentine, 
say  a  tablespoonful,  according  to  the  size  of  the  saucer,  and 
over  the  saucer  place  a  layer  of  muslin,  sufliciently  close 
in  texture  to  prevent  dust  getting  to  the  turpentine,  and  yet 
not  so  close  as  to  prevent  evaporation.  The  saucer  with  the 
muslin  drawn  tight  over  it  should  now  be  put  in  a  place 
where  evaporation  will  be  free,  but  not  over  the  fire  or 
stove  so  as  to  hasten  evaporation,  or  the  heat  miglit  dis- 
sipate the  whole.    When  the  spirituous  part  of  the  liquid  has 

42 


CHINA  PAINTING 


43 


passed  off  there  will  be  found  left  the  oil  at  the  bottom  of 
the  saucer.  Fresh  spirit  may  be  added,  and  the  process  re- 
peated until  there  is  enough  oil  to  pour  off. 

Tar.  The  spirit  of  tar  is  in  two  shades,  one  a  rich  amber, 
the  other  a  dark  brown,  but  both  are  alike  in  nature.  The 
oil  of  tar  corresponds  to  it  in  the  same  way  as  the  oil  of 
turpentine  does  to  the  spirit  of  turpentine.  The  spirits  of 
oil  of  tar  are  of  similar  use  to  the  other  spirit  and  oil,  and 
are  employed  principally  by  those  who  object  to  the  vapor 
of  the  turpentine  as  causing  headache  or  affecting  the  throat. 
The  spirits  of  turpentine  and  of  tar  are  extremely  volatile, 
the   former  being  somewhat   more   so   than   the   latter;    and 


Fig.    12.      Painter's   Flat   Duster. 

during  the  working,  sufficient  may  pass  off  to  render  the 
paint  somewhat  troublesome  to  deal  with.  This  difficulty  is, 
however,  only  a  slight  one,  and  is  easily  overcome  by  the 
use   of  a   little 

Oil  of  Lavender.  Oil  of  spike,  as  it  is  sometimes  called, 
is  a  perfectly  volatile  and  fluid  oil,  but  very  much  less  vo'a- 
tile  than  either  of  the  above  mentioned  spirits,  and  a  small 
quantity  is  added  to  the  other  mediums  used  when  it  is 
desired  to  keep  the  work  open,  to  counteract  its  drying  or 
fattening  through  loss  of  spirit. 

The  mediums  should  be  kept  in  bottles  with  closely  fit- 
ting stoppers,  especially  the  spirits,  as  otherwise  these  would 
quickly  become  "fat"  by  evaporation. 


44 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   PAINTING 


Paint.  The  colors  used  in  painting  upon  china  or  earth- 
enware are,  for  the  most  part,  oxides  of  certain  metals.  A 
few  colors,  however,  such  as  the  deep  transparent  blues,  and 
j'ellows  from  one  source,  are  really,  to  a  certain  extent, 
stained  glass,  the  glass  having  more  or  less  completely  dis- 
solved the  coloring  matter.  China  or  enamel  colors  then, 
from  their  containing,  as  an  essential  constituent,  a  glass 
or  flux  of  vitrifiable  composition,  are  called  vitrifiable  pig- 
ments. 

The  following  list  of  colors  in  dry  powder  will  serve  all 
purposes : 

Black. 

Soft. 
Deep. 

Blue. 

Azure. 

Old  Tile. 

Turquoise    Outremer. 

Schwartzenburgh. 

Brown. 
Austrian. 
Brunswick. 
Chestnut. 
Chocolate. 
Fawn. 
German. 
Golden. 
Olive. 
Sepia. 
Vandyke. 

Cannine. 
Carmine. 
Pink. 
Rose  Coral. 


Gray. 

Red. 

Black. 

Flesh. 

Pearl. 

White  Shadow. 

Ordinary. 
Salmon. 

Scarlet. 

Green. 

Celadon. 

Silver. 

Deep. 

Prepared, 

Dover. 

Emerald. 

Gordon. 

Rose-leaf. 

Sevres. 

Violet. 
Lilac. 
Mauve. 
Violet. 

Orange. 

White. 
Hard. 

Dark. 
Light. 
Opaque. 

Medium. 
Soft. 

Strong  Deep. 

YeUow. 

Buff. 

Purple. 

Ivory. 

Ordinarj'. 

Light. 

Royal. 

Opaque. 

Ruby  d'Or. 

Persian. 

CHINA   PAINTING  45 

Moist  Oil-Colors.  These,  as  well  as  moist  water-colors 
prepared  expressly  for  this  kind  of  painting,  can  be  pur- 
chased at  any  large  paint  dealer's  store. 

Having  all  the  general  requisites  at  hand  we  are  ready 
to  begin  work.  Before,  however,  we  bring  out  the  brushes 
and  mix  the  colors,  we  must  decide  where  the  color  is  to 
go  when  it  is  mixed.  The  first  concern  is  .the  design,  and 
this  whether  we  intend  to  have  a  background  or  not.  There- 
fore, the  first  operations  will  be  directed  toward  producing 
the  outline. 

According  to  the  method  which  may  be  adopted  for 
sketching  the  outline,  there  will  be  required  a  black  lead 
pencil,  HB  or  B,  lithographic  crayon,  a  tracing  point,  trac- 
ing paper,  transfer  paper,  a  pounce,  Indian  ink,  rose  pink, 
or  lamp  black,  and  gummed  paper  or  modelling  wax. 

Lithographic  crayon  may  be  made  by  mixing  32  parts 
bees-wax,  4  parts  purified  tallow,  24  parts  soap,  1  part 
nitrate  of  potassium,  dissolved  in  8  parts  water,  6  parts 
lamp  black. 

The  surface  of  the  china  having  been  thoroughly  cleaned 
by  washing  and  dried,  the  design  may  be  marked  on  by 
either  of  the  following  plans :  By  marking  with  lithograph- 
ic crayon,  black  lead  pencil,  pricked  stencil  pattern  and 
pounce-bag,  copying  or  transfer  paper.  The  design  being 
drawn  on  the  ware  proceed  to  mix  the  color  with  the 
mediums.  Different  pigments  require  different  proportions 
of  medium,  and  the  same  pigment  requires  varying  propor- 
tions, according  to  the  end  sought.  It  may  be  said  gen- 
erally that  the  ordinary  blues,  rose,  and  purple  take  most 
fat  and  the  yellows  the  least.  More  fat,  again,  is  required 
when  it  is  desired  to  lay  color  flat,  as  in  backgrounds,  either 
with  the  brush,  or  when  the  use  of  the  dabber  is  contem- 
plated, or  to  have  the  color  flow  to  a  very  slight  extent 
as  in  delicate  shading,  or  to  lay  a  very  thin  tint. 

Powder  Color.  In  mixing  powder  color,  the  orthodox 
direction  is  to  lay  a  little  powder  on  the  slab,  and  add  to 


46 


CYCLOPEDIA  OF  PAINTING 


it  just  so  much  oil  as  will  make  it  into  a  thick  paste,  to 
be  subsequently  reduced  to  the  requisite  thinness  by  spirit. 
The  grinding  is  done  on  the  slab  with  the  muller,  and  when 
ground  to  a  thick  cream  consistency  it  is  called  prepared 
color. 

Moist  Oil-Color.  Those  who  adopt  moist  oil-color  in 
tubes  will  find  that  the  color  when  fresh  contains  exactly 
the  right  quantity  of  oil.  The  color  only  requires  thinning 
to  be  fit  for  use. 

Moist  Water-Colors.  Require  no  grinding,  simply  dilu- 
tion, but  it  must  be  remembered  water-colors  cannot  be 
used  where  the  outlines  are  made  with  lithographic  crayons, 


Fig.    13.      stucco   Wall    Paint    Brush. 


for  these  being  greasy  would  grease  the  brush,  and  the  wa- 
ter-color instead  of  laying  flat,  would  ridge  and   spot. 

Firing.  The  ware  being  painted  the  next  step  is  to  make 
the  work  imperishable  by  fire;  this  part  of  the  pi'ocess  need 
not  be  done  by  the  painter,  for  the  maintenance  to  a  nicety 
of  different  definite  degrees  of  heat  in  furnaces  of  special 
adaptation  are  not  to  be  found  united  except  in  factories 
devoted  to  the  business.  If  the  painting  has  gone  to  the 
kiln  with  too  much  oil  in  it,  it  is  certain  that  the  color  will 
blister.     If  it   comes  back   with   a   dry  powdery   look,   with 


CHINA   PAINTING  47 

the   color   scarcely   adhering,    it    shows    that   the    color   was 
over-diluted  with   turpentine. 

The  remedy  for  dryness  is  simply  repainting,  using  more 
oil.  The  remedy  for  blistering  is  simply  chipping  off  the 
blisters,  and  then  rubbing  down  the  irregularities. 


COLORS. 

Blacks.  Lamp  black  is  the  soot  produced  by  burning  oil, 
resin,  small  coal,  resinous  woods,  coal  tar  or  tallow.  It 
is  in  the  state  of  very  fine  powder,  works  smoothly,  is  of 
a  dense  black  color  and  durable,  but  dries  very  slowly  in 
oil. 

Vegetable  black  is  a  better  kind  of  lamp  black  made 
from  oil.  It  is  very  light,  free  from  grit  and  of  a  good  color. 
It  should  be  used  with  boiled  oil,  driers  and  a  little  var- 
nish. Raw  linseed  oil  or  sj^irits  of  turpentine  keeps  it 
from  drying. 

Ivory-black  is  obtained  by  calcining  waste  ivory  in  close 
vessels  and  then  grinding.  It  is  intensely  black  when  prop- 
erly burned.  Bone-black  is  inferior  to  ivory-black,  and 
prepared  in  a  similar  manner  from  bones.  In  Europe  some 
other  blacks  are  used,  but  are  seldom  met  with  in  this 
country. 

When  camphor  gum  is  burned  and  the  soot  collected  by 
means  of  a  paper  funnel  or  a  saucer  inverted  over  it,  the 
result  mixed  with  gum-arabic  will  be  found  far  superior  to 
the  best  ivoiy-black. 

Black  japan  is  a  composition  of  asphaltum  and  oil,  and 
is  a  liquid  of  about  the  same  consistency  as  varnish,  of  a 
jet-black  color,  although  of  a  brownish  tint  wlien  applied 
over  a  light  color,  or  on  tin  or  glass.  While  ordinary 
blacks  have  a  greenish  hue  when  varnished,  this  article  will 
retain  its  jet  color.  It  has  no  grains  as  a  mixture  of  pig- 
ment and  varnish,  and  its  flowing  qualities  are  good.  Many 
err  in  supposing  that  it  Avill  cover  at  once,  and  thus  take 
the  place  of  color,  and  furnish  with  two  or  three  applica- 
tions a  perfect  surface  over  any  ground,  but  this  is  not  the 
case.      It    was    never    intended    for    such    a    purpose,    it    is 

48 


COLORS 


49 


semi-transparent,  and  when  put  upon  a  white  ground  pro- 
duces a  brownish  tint  or  glaze. 

Besides  the  black  pigments  described  above,  there  are 
several  other  substances  known  as  Prussian  black,  black 
lake  and  tannin  black,  which  have  been  proposed  as  black 
pigments,  but  their  use  is  so  limited  that  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  give  a  description  of  them. 

Frankfort  black  is  made  of  the  lees  of  wine,  from  which 
the  tartar  has  been  washed,  by  burning  in  the  manner  of 
ivory  black.  Similar  blacks  are  prepared  from  vine  twigs 
and  tendrils  which  contain  tartar,  also  from  peach-stones, 
etc.,  whence  almond  black  and  peach  black,  and  the  Indians 
employ   for   the   same   purpose   the   shell   of   the   cocoanut. 


Fig.  14.     Handled  Roofing  Brush. 


Inferior  Frankfort  black  is,  in  fact,  merely  the  levigated 
charcoal  of  woods,  of  which  the  hardest,  such  as  box  and 
ebony,  afford  the  best.  Fine  Frankfort  black,  though  al- 
most confined  to  copper-plate  printers,  is  one  of  the  best 
black  pigments  we  possess,  being  of  a  fine  neutral  color, 
next  in  intensity  to  lamp  black  and  more  powerful  than 
that  of  ivory.  Strong  light  has  the  effect  of  deepening  its 
color,  yet  the  blacks  employed  in  the  printing  of  engrav- 
ings have  proved  of  very  variable  durability.  It  is  prob- 
able that  this  black  was  used  by  some  of  the  Flemish  paint- 


50  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  PAINTING 

ers,  and  that  the  pureness  of  the  grays  is  attributable  to 
the  propert}-  of  charred  substances  to  prevent  diseolonnent. 

Blue  black  is  a  well-burnt  and  levigated  charcoal,  of  a 
cool  neutral  coloi*,  and  not  differing  in  other  respects  fi'om 
the  common  Frankfort  black.  Blue  black  was  fonnerly 
much  employed  in  painting,  and,  in  common  with  all  car- 
bonaceous blacks,  has,  when  duly  mixed  with  white,  a  pre- 
serving influence  upon  that  color  in  two  respects,  which  it 
owes  chemically  to  the  bleaching  power  of  carbon,  and  chro- 
matically to  the  neutralizing  and  contrasting  power  of  black 
with  white.  A  superior  blue  black  may  be  made  by  calcin- 
ing Prussian  blue  in  a  close  crucible,  in  the  manner  of  ivoiy 
black,  and  it  has  the  important  property  of  drying-  well  in 
oil.  Innumerable  black  pigments  may  be  made  in  this  way 
by  charring. 

Vegetable  black  is  a  pigment  now  very  extensivelj'^  em- 
ployed, superseding  to  a  great  extent  the  use  of  lamp  black, 
to  which  it  is  in  every  way  superior.  The  best  way  to 
procure  it  is  to  buy  it  in  a  dry  state,  in  which  it  resembles 
soot,  and  is  so  exceedingly  light  that  an  ounce  or  two  will 
fill  a  gallon  measure.  It  is  free  from  gi'it,  and  only  re- 
quires to  be  rubbed  up  with  a  palette  knife  on  a  marble 
slab,  instead  of  grinding.  It  should  never  be  diluted  with 
linseed  oil,  because,  if  it  were,  it  would  never  dry,  and  it 
is  not  advisable  to  employ  turpentine,  but  always  the  best 
boiled  oil,  and  a  little  varnish  will  improve  it.  A  small 
quantity  of  driers  should  be  added,  to  ensure  its  drying 
with  a  uniformity  of  surface. 

Blues.  Prussian  blue  is  made  by  mixing  prussiate  of 
potash  with  a  salt  of  iron.  The  prussiate  of  potash  is  ob- 
tained by  calcining  and  digesting  old  leather,  blood,  hoofs 
or  other  animal  matter  with  carbonate  of  potash  and  iron 
filings.  This  color  is  much  used,  especiallj'  for  dark  blues, 
making  purples  and  intensifying  black.  It  dries  well  with 
oil.  Slight  differences  in  the  manufacture  cause  consider- 
able variation  in  tint  and  color,  which  leads  to  the  material 


COLORS  51 

being  known  bj^  different  names,  such  d^  Antwerp  blue, 
Berlin  blue,  Harlem  blue  and  Chinese  blue.  Indigo  is  pro- 
duced by  steeping  certain  plants  in  water  and  allowing  them 
to  ferment.  It  is  a  transparent  color,  works  well  in  oil  or 
water,  but  is  not  durable,  especially  when  mixed  with  white 
lead. 

Ultramarine  was  originally  made  by  grinding  the  valuable 
mineral  lapis  lazuli.  Genuine  ultramarine  so  made  is  very 
expensive,  but  artificial  French  or  German  ultramarines  are 
made  of  better  color,  and  cheaply,  by  fusing  and  washing 
and  reheating  a  mixture  of  soda,  silica,  alum  and  sulphur. 
This  blue  is  chiefly  used  for  coloring  wall  papers. 

Cobalt  blue  is  an  oxide  of  cobalt  made  by  roasting  co- 
balt ore.  It  makes  a  beautiful  color  and  works  well  in 
water  or  oil. 

Smalt,  Saxon  blue  and  royal  blue  are  colored  by  oxides 
of  cobalt. 

There  are  a  few  other  blues,  such  as  celestial  or  Bruns- 
wick blue,  damp  blue  and  verditer,  that  are  chemical  com- 
pounds, compounds  of  alum,  copper,  lime  and  other  sub- 
stances. 

Brunswick  blue  is  essentially  a  mixture  of  Prussian  blue 
and  barytes.  It  is  prepared  by  thoroughly  mixing  barytes 
with  water,  adding  a  solution  of  copperas,  then  a  solution 
of  red  or  yellow  prussiate  of  potash,  stirring  constantly  so 
as  to  ensure  the  thorough  incorporation  of  the  barytes  with 
the  blue.  After  filtering,  washing  and  drying,  the  blue  is 
ready  for  use. 

As  a  pigment  it  is  quite  peraianent  and  resists  exposure 
to  the  air,  light  and  most  of  the  other  influences  which  act 
on  pigments.  It  has  the  curious  property  of  fading  a  little 
on  exposure  to  light  and  of  recovering  its  original  intensity 
of  color  in  the  absence  of  light. 

Prussian  blue  can  be  mixed  with  nearly  all  other  pig- 
ments without  being  affected  or  changed  by  them  or  affect- 
ing them  in  any  way. 


52 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   PAINTING 


Indigo,  or  Indian  blue,  is  a  pigment  manufactured  in  the 
East  and  "West  Indies  from  several  plants,  but  principally 
from  the  Anil,  or  Indigofera.  It  is  of  various  qualities, 
and  has  been  long  known  and  of  great  use  in  dyeing. 

In  painting  it  is  not  so  bright  as  Prussian  blue,  but  is 
extremely  powerful  and  transparent,  hence  it  may  be  sub- 
stituted for  some  of  the  uses  of  Prussian  blue,  as  the  lat- 
ter now  is  for  indigo. 

It  is  of  great  body  and  works  well  both  in  water  and  oil. 
Its  relative  permanence  as  a  dye  has  obtained  it  a  false 
character  of  extreme  durability  in  painting,  a  quality  in 
which  it  is  verj-  inferior  even  to  Prussian  blue. 


Fig.   15.      Roofing  Brush. 


Indigo  is  injured  by  impure  air,  and,  in  glazing,  some 
specimens  are  firmer  than  others,  but  not  durable,  in  tint 
with  white  lead  they  are  all  fugitive;  when  used,  how- 
ever, in  considerable  body  in  shadow  it  is  more  permanent, 
but  in  all  respects  inferior  to  Prussian  blue  in  painting. 
Intense  blue  is  indigo  refined  by  solution  and  precijiitation, 
in  which  state  it  is  equal  in  color  to  Antwerp  blue.  By  this 
process  indigo  becomes  more  durable  and  much  more  power- 
ful, transparent  and  deep.  It  washes  and  works  admirably 
in  water;  in  other  respects  it  has  the  common  properties  of 
indigo. 


COLORS  53 

The  indigo  plant,  in  its  general  appearance,  is  not  un- 
Kke  the  lucerne  of  our  fields.  The  seed  is  sown  in  drills, 
about  18  inches  apart,  and  soon  makes  its  appearance  above 
the  ground,  when  it  requires  incessant  care  to  keep  the 
weeds  down,  which  would  otherv/ise  soon  choke  so  tender 
a  crojD.  In  about  two  months  the  plants  begin  to  flower, 
and  are  then  cut  down,  but  shoot  up  again  and  give  two 
or  three  more  crops  in  the  same  year.  Formerly  indigo 
was  carefully  dried  after  being  cut,  and  even  fire  heat  was 
sometimes  used  for  the  purpose;  but  now,  at  least  in  India, 
the  practice  is  abandoned,  and  it  is  fovmd  in  every  respect 
better  to  use  the  plant  whilst  fresh  and  green.  The  first 
process  is  to  place  in  a  shallow  wooden  vat  as  much  as  Avill 
loosely  cover  the  bottom  of  it;  water  is  then  let  in  so  as 
to  cover  the  plants  about  three  inches,  and  heavy  wooden 
frames  are  put  on  the  top  to  prevent  them  from  floating. 
Being  left  in  this  state  for  from  fifteen  to  twenty  hours, 
fermentation  is  set  up,  and  much  gas  is  disengaged,  the 
water  becoming  a  light  green  color.  The  green  liquor  is 
then  run  off  into  the  second  vat,  which  is  placed  below  the 
level  of  the  first,  in  which,  whilst  the  fermentation  proc- 
ess is  being  repeated  upon  a  fresh  supply  in  the  first  vat, 
it  is  violently  agitated  by  being  beaten  with  poles;  this 
causes  the  grain,  as  it  is  called,  to  separate,  and  the  green 
matter  suspended  in  the  liquor  becomes  blue  and  granular, 
and  this  change  is  promoted  by  the  addition  of  a  little  lime- 
water  from  time  to  time.  When  this  operation  is  sufficiently 
advanced  the  contents  of  the  vat  are  allowed  to  settle,  and 
in  a  short  time  the  now  intensely  blue  granular  matter  has 
sunk  to  the  bottom,  leaving  the  supernatant  liquor  almost 
as  clear  as  water;  this  is  then  run  off  nearly  to  the  bottom, 
and  the  sediment  is  run  into  the  third  vat,  which  is  below 
the  level  of  the  second;  here  it  awaits  several  other  addi- 
tions from  successive  operations,  and,  a  sufficient  quantity 
being  accumulated  in  the  third  vat,  it  is  suffered  to  subside 
and  when  thoroughly  settled  the  clear  liquor  is  drawn  off, 


54  CYCLOPEDIA   OF    PAINTING 

and  the  granular  matter  is  removed  and  filled  into  coarse 
bags,  which  are  hung  up  to  drain.  When  sufficiently 
drained  the  blue  paste  is  filled  into  very  small  boxes,  about 
three  inches  square,  and  set  to  dry  in  the  sun,  which  soon 
renders  it  fit  for  packing. 

There  are,  of  course,  other  blues,  but  the  above  will  be 
sufficient  for  all  purposes,  and  the  painter  is  urged  not  to 
adopt  others  until  he  knows  their  qualities  from  actual  trial, 
and  from  having  watched  the  effect  which  time  and  ex- 
posure  to   atmospheric  action   have  had   upon   them. 

Browns.  Browns  generally  owe  their  color  to  oxide  of 
iron.  Raw  umber  is  a  clay  similar  to  ochre  colored  by 
oxide  of  iron.  The  best  comes  from  Turkej';  it  is  verj'  dur- 
able both  in  water  and  in  oil;  does  not  injure  other  colors 
when  mixed  with  them. 

Burnt  Umber  is  the  last  mentioned  material  burnt  to 
give  it  a  darker  color.  It  is  useful  as  a  drier,  and  in  mix- 
ing with  white  lead  to  make  a  stone  color. 

Vandyke  Brown  is  an  earthy  dark  brown  mineral;  it  is 
durable  both  in  oil  and  water,  and  is  frequently  employed 
in  graining. 

Purple  Brown  is  of  a  reddish-brown  color.  It  should  be 
used  with  boiled  oil  and  a  little  varnish  and  driers  for  out- 
side work. 

Burnt  Sienna  is  produced  by  burning  raw  sienna.  It  is 
the  best  color  for  shading  gold. 

Brown  Pink  is  a  vegetable  color  often  of  a  greenish  hue. 
It  works  well  in  water  and  oil,  but  dries  badly,  and  will  not 
keep  its  color  when  mixed  with  white  lead.  Spanish  brown 
and  brown  ochre  are  clays  colored  naturally  by  various 
oxides. 

Sepia  is  a  brown  pigment,  of  slightly  varying  hue,  and 
is  obtained  from  various  species  of  cephalopodous  animals. 
It  is  a  blackish-brown  pigment  of  a  very  fine  texture,  mix- 
ing well  with  both  oil  and  water.  It  is  much  used  by  ar- 
tists,  especially   for   monochrome    work.      It  is  a  fairly  per- 


COLORS 


55 


Fig.   16.     Kalsomlne  Bruslj. 


56  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

manent    pigment,   being   but    little    affected   by   exposure   to 
light  and  air. 

Manganese  brown  is  an  oxide  of  manganese,  of  a  fine, 
deep,  semi-opaque  brown,  of  a  good  body,  and  dries  well 
in  oil.  It  is  artificially  prepared  from  the  waste  still-liquors 
of  the  chlorine  manufacturer  by  precipitating  the  liquors 
with  sodium  carbonate,  collecting  the  precipitate  and  cal- 
cining in  a  furnace  to  a  low  red  heat,  until  samples  taken 
out  and  allowed  to  cool  show  the  desired  shade.  It  is  a 
good  and  permanent  pigment,  but  it  is  difficult  to  use  on 
account  of  its  excessively  strong  drying  properties. 

Greens.  These,  of  course,  may  be  made  by  mixing  blue 
and  yellow  together,  but  such  mixtures  are  less  durable  than 
those  produced  direct  from  copper,  arsenic,  etc.  The  latter 
are,  however,  objectionable  for  use  in  distemper  or  on  wall 
papers,  as  they  are  very  injurious  to  health.  Brunswick 
green  of  the  best  kind  is  made  by  treating  copper  with  sal- 
ammoniac.  Chalk,  lead  and  alum  are  sometimes  added. 
It  has  rather  a  bluish  tinge,  dries  well  in  oil,  is  durable, 
and  not  poisonous.  Common  Brunswick  green  is  made  by 
mixing  chromate  of  lead  and  Prussian  blue  with  sulphate 
of  baryta.  It  is  not  as  durable  as  real  Brunswick  green. 
Mineral  green  is  made  from  bi-basic  carbonate  of  copper; 
it  weathers  well.  Verdigris  is  acetate  of  copper.  It  fur- 
nishes a  bluish-gi-een  color,  durable  in  oil  or  varnish,  but 
not  in  water;  it  dries  rapidly,  but  requires  great  care  in 
using  owing  to  its  poisonous  qualities.  Green  verditer  is  a 
carbonate  of  copper  and  lime;  is  not  veiy  durable.  Prus- 
sian gTeen  is  made  by  mixing  different  substances  with 
Prussian  blue.  There  are  a  number  of  other  greens  made 
from  copper,  but  they  ali  possess  in  a  greater  or  less  de- 
gree the  same  qualities  as  the  foregoing.  Emerald  or 
Paris  green  is  made  of  verdigris  mixed  with  a  solution  of 
arsenious  acid.  It  is  of  a  very  brilliant  color,  but  is  very 
poisonous;  is  difficult  to  grind,  .mikI  drios  badly  in  oil.  It 
should    be   purchased   ready   ground    in   oil,   as   in    that   case 


COLORS  57 

the  poisonous  particles  do  not  fly  about,  and  the  difficulty 
of  grinding  is  avoided.  Seheele's  green  and  Vienna  green 
are  also  arseniates  of  copper,  and  highly  poisonous. 
Chrome  green  should  be  made  from  the  oxide  of  chromium, 
and  is  very  durable.  An  inferior  chrome  green  is  made  by 
mixing  chromate  of  lead  and  Prussian  blue,  as  above  men- 
tioned, and  is  called  Brunswick  green.  The  chrome  should 
be  free  from  acid  or  the  color  will  fade;  it  may  be  tested 
b}'  placing  it  for  several  days  in  strong  sunlight. 

Bremen  green  is  essentially  copper  hydrate,  and  forms 
an  extremely  loose  and  pale  blue  mass,  the  color  of  which 
has,  however,  a  somewhat  greenish  tinge.  When  used  as 
a  water  color  it  gives  a  pale  blue,  but  when  employed  as 
an  oil  paint  the  original  blue  color  turns  green  in  24  hours, 
owing  to  the  copper  oxide  combining  with  the  fatty  acids 
of  the  oil  to  a  green  copper  soap. 

Reds.  Carmine,  made  from  the  cochineal  insect,  is  the 
most  brilliant  red  color  known.  It  is,  however,  too  expen- 
sive for  ordinary  house  painting  and  is  not  durable.  It  is 
sometimes  used  for  inside  decoration. 

Red  lead  is  produced  by  raising  massicot,  which  is  the 
commercial  name  for  oxide  of  lead,  to  a  high  temperature, 
short  of  fusion,  during  which  it  absorbs  oxygen  from  the 
air  and  is  converted  into  red  lead  or  minium,  also  an  oxide 
of  lead.  The  color  is  lasting,  and  is  unaffected  by  light 
when  it  is  pure  and  used  alone,  but  any  preparation  con- 
taining lead  or  acids  mixed  with  it  deprives  it  of  color,  and 
impure  air  makes  it  black.  It  may  be  used  for  a  drier,  as 
it  possesses  many  of  the  properties  of  litharge;  it  is  also 
often  employed  in  painting  wrought  iron  work,  to  which 
it  adheres  with  a  tenacity  not  equaled  by  any  other  paints; 
it  is  sometimes  objected  to  for  this  purpose,  on  the  ground 
that  galvanic   action  is   set  up  between   the   lead  and   iron. 

Vermilion  is  a  sulphide  of  mercury  in  a  natural  state  as 
cinnabar.  The  best  comes  from  China.  Artificial  vermilion 
is  also  made,  both  in  China  and  in  this  country,  from  a 


58 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 


mixture  of-  sulphur  and  mercury.  Genuine  vermilion  is 
very  durable,  but  when  mixed  with  red  lead,  as  it  is  some- 
times, it  will  not  stand  the  weather.  It  can  be  tested  by 
heating  in  a  test  tube;  if  genuine  it  will  entirely  volatilize, 
German  vermilion  is  the  tersulphide  of  antimony,  and  is  of 
an  orange-red  color. 

Indian  red  is  a  ground  hematite  ore  brought  from  Ben- 
gal; it  is  sometimes  made  artificially  by  calcining  sulphate 
of  iron.  The  tints  vary,  but  a  rosy  hue  is  considered  l..e 
best.  It  may  be  used  with  turpentine  and  a  little  varnisli 
to  produce  a  dull  surface,  drjdng  rapidly,  or  with  bulled 
oil  and  a  little  drier  to  produce  a  glossy  surface. 


Fig.    17.      Flat  Knotted  Badger  Blender. 


Tuscan  red  is  essentially  a  mixture  of  Indian  red  with 
some  sort  of  lake  color.  The  cheapest  article  is  made  from 
a  reduced  Indian  red  and  rose  pink.  The  richness  of  such 
article  is  very  fleeting,  particularly  if  the  rose  pink  be  sim- 
ply whiting  colored  with  a  coal  tar  dye.  It  is  apparent  that 
the  real  value  of  a  Tuscan  red  lies  in  the  permanency  of 
the   lake   coloring  material    employed   to   give   it   richness. 

Orange  is  a  chromate  of  lead,  brighter  than  vermilion, 
but  less  durable.  Orange  ochre  is  a  bright  yellow  ochre 
burnt  to  give  it  warmth  of  tint;  it  dries  and  works  well  in 
water  or  oil,  and  is  very  durable.  It  is  known  also  as  Span- 
ish ochre.     Orang^e  red  is  px'oduced  by  a  further  oxidation 


COLORS  59 

than  is  required  for  red  lead.  It  is  a  brighter  and  better 
color. 

Chinese  red  and  Persian  red  are  chromates  of  lead,  pro- 
duced by  boiling  white  lead  with  a  solution  of  bichromate 
of  potash.  The  tint  of  Persian  red  is  obtained  by  the  em- 
ployment of  sulphuric  acid. 

Venetian  red  is  obtained  by  heating  sulphate  of  iron 
produced  as  a  waste  product  at  tin  and  copper  works.  It 
is  often  adulterated  by  mixing  sulphate  of  lime  with  it 
during  the  manufacture.  When  pure,  it  is  called  bright 
red.  Special  tints  of  purple  and  brown  are  frequently  re- 
quired, which  greatly  enhance  the  value  of  the  material. 
These  tints  should  be  obtained  in  the  process  of  manufac- 
ture, and  not  produced  by  mixing  together  a  variety  of 
different  shades  of  color.  When  the  tint  desired  is  at- 
tempted to  be  obtained  by  this  latter  course  it  is  never  so 
good,  and  the  materials  produced  ai'e  known  to  the  trade 
as  faced  colors,  and  are  of  inferior  value. 

Venetian  red  originally  consisted  of  a  native  ferric  oxide 
or  red  hematite.  But  of  recent  years  the  name  appears  to 
have  been  transfen-ed  to  a  particular  quality  of  artificial 
ferric  oxide  made  by  calcining  green  vitriol.  When  this 
salt  is  heated  in  a  crucible  the  upper  portion  of  the  prod- 
uct, which  has  been  less  strongly  heated  than  the  lower,  is 
of  a  brighter  red  than  the  remainder,  and  after  washing 
and  grinding  is  sold  as  Venetian  red. 

Rose  pink  is  made  of  a  sort  of  chalk  or  whiting  stained 
with  a  tincture  of  Brazil  wood.  It  fades  very  quickly, 
but  is  used  for  paper-hangings,  common  distemper  and  for 
staining  cheap  furniture. 

Lakes  are  made  by  precipitating  colored  vegetable  tinc- 
tures by  means  of  alum  and  carbonate  of  potash.  The 
alumina  combines  with  the  organic  coloring  matter  and 
separates  it  from  the  solution.  The  tincture  used  varies 
in  the  different  descriptions  of  lake.  The  best,  made  from 
cochineal  or  madder,  is  used  for  internal  work.     Drop  lake 


60  CYCLOPEDIA  OF   PAINTING 

is  made  by  dropping  a  mixture  of  Brazil  wood  through  a 
funnel  onto  a  slab.  The  drops  are  dried  and  mixed  into 
a  paste  with  gum  water.  It  is  sometimes  called  Brazil  wood 
lake.  Scarlet  lake  is  made  from  cochineal,  so  also  are 
Florentine  lake,  Hambui-g  lake,  Chinese  lake,  Roman  lake, 
Venetian  lake  and  Carminated  lake. 

Whites.  The  most  important  gi'oup  of  painters'  colors 
are  the  white  pigments.  White  is  the  basis  of  nearly  all 
opaque  painting  designed  for  the  laying  and  covering  of 
grounds,  whether  they  be  of  woodwork,  metal,  stone,  plas- 
ter or  other  substances.  It  should  be  as  pure  and  neutral 
in  color  as  possible,  for  the  better  mixing  and  compounding 
with  other  colors  without  changing  their  hues,  while  it 
renders  them  of  lighter  shades,  and  of  the  tints  required; 
it  also  gives  solid  body  to  all  colors.  It  is  the  most  advanc- 
ing color;  that  is,  it  comes  forward  and  catches  the  eye  be- 
fore all  other  colors,  and  it  assists  in  giving  this  quality  to 
other  colors,  with  which  it  may  be  mixed,  by  rendering  their 
tints  lighter  and  more  vivid. 

White  is  the  nearest  among  colors  in  relation  to  yellow, 
and  is  in  itself  a  pleasing  and  cheerful  color,  which  takes 
every  tint,  hue  and  shade,  and  harmonizes  with  all  other 
colors,  and  is  the  contrast  of  black,  added  to  which  it  gives 
solidity  in  mixture,  and  a  small  quantity  of  black  added 
to  white  preserves  it  from  its  tendency  to  turn  yellow. 
The  most  important  of  the  white  pigments  is 
AVhite  lead,  which  may  be  obtained  either  pure  or  mixed 
with  various  substances,  such  as  sulphate  of  baryta,  sul- 
phate of  lead,  whiting,  chalk,  zinc  white,  etc.  These  sub- 
stances do  not  combine  with  oil  as  well  as  does  white  lead, 
nor  do  they  so  well  protect  any  surface  to  which  they  are 
applied.  Sulphate  of  baryta,  the  most  common  adulterant, 
is  a  dense,  heavy,  white  substance,  very  like  white  lead  in 
appearance.  It  absorbs  very  little  oil,  and  may  frequently 
be  detected  by  the  gritty  feeling  it  produces  when  the  paint 
is  rubbed  between  the  finger  and  thumb. 


COLORS 


61 


Oxide  of  zinc,  or  zinc  white,  is  durable  in  water  or  oil; 
it  dissolves  in  hydrochloric  acid;  it  does  not  blacken  in  the 
presence  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  it  is  not  injurious 
to  the  men  who  make  it,  or  to  the  painters  who  use  it;  but 
on  the  other  hand,  it  does  not  combine  with  oil  well,  and 
is  wanting  in  body  and  covering  power,  and  is  difficult  to 
work.  It  is  easily  acted  upon  by  the  carbonic  acid  in  rain 
water,  which  dissolves  the  oxide,  and  it  therefore  is  unfit 
for  outside  work.  The  acids  contained  in  unseasoned  wood 
also  have  a  great  effect  upon  it.  When  pure  and  used  for 
inside  work,  it  retains  its  color  well,  and  will  stand  washing 


Fig.   18.     Camel's-Hair  Lacquering  Brushes. 

for  many  years  without  losing  any  of  its  freshness.  When 
dry  it  becomes  very  hard,  and  will  take  a  fine  polish.  This 
paint  is  suitable  for  any  place  that  is  subjected  to  vapors 
containing  sulphur,  or  in  places  where  foul  air  is  emanated 
from  decaying  animal   matter. 

The  purity  of  white  lead  is  ascertained  by  dissolving  a 
sample  of  it  in  pure  dilute  nitric  acid,  1  part  of  acid  to 
two  parts  of  water.  On  adding  dilute  sulphuric  acid  to  the 
solution,  after  diluting  it  with  water  and  filtering  off  the 
precipitate  of  lead  sulphate  thus  obtained,  no  further  pre- 
•ipitate  should  be  formed  on  successively  adding  ammonia, 


62  CYCLOPEDL\   OF   PAINTING 

ammonium  sulphide   and   ammoniuui   oxalate   to   the  filtrate. 

The  purity  of  zinc  white  in  oil  may  be  tested  by  buni- 
intif  out  the  oil  by  means  of  a  blast  lamp,  on  an  iron  spoon 
or  ladle.  Take  of  the  zinc  white  a  piece  al)out  the  size  of 
a  pea,  place  it  in  the  center  of  the  spoon  and  dii'ect  the 
blast  on  it  until  it  is  burned  white  and  perfectly  dry.  Crush 
the  white  cinder  which  is  left  to  a  line  powder  and  drop 
this  into  a  glass  of  diluted  sulphuric  acid,  1  part  of  acid 
to  10  parts  of  water.  If  the  powder  be  fine  and  very  little 
dropped  in  at  a  time,  it  will,  if  pure,  dissolve  completely 
before  reaching-  the  bottom  and  without  effervescence.  If 
there  be  any  effervescence  it  indicates  the  presence  of  whit- 
ing, which  will  precipitate  as  sulphate  of  lime,  which  is, 
however,  sparingly  soluble,  barytes  is  insoluble,  and  a  con- 
siderable adulteration  of  terra  alba  is  not  readily  soluble; 
clay  is  insoluble. 

Gypsum  mixes  well  with  either  water  or  oil,  and,  being 
neutral  in  its  properties,  it  can  be  mixed  with  all  other  pig- 
ments without  affecting  them  or  being  affected  by  them. 
It  is  used  very  largely  by  paper  stainers  and  makers  of 
wall  paper,  who  prefer  it  to  barytes  on  account  of  its  hav- 
ing more  body  when  used  for  that  class  of  work.  It  is  used 
in  finishing  of  cotton  goods,  in  paper  making,  and  for  a 
variety  of  other  jDurposes  where  a  cheap  white  pigment  is 
required. 

Whiting  is  sold  under  a  variety  of  names,  such  as  Span- 
ish white,  Paris  white,  English  white.  Whiting  is  the  car- 
bonate of  calcium,  purified  by  washing.  It  is  prepared  by 
grinding  chalk  under  water  to  a  very  fine  powder  by  pass- 
ing it  through  several  mills.  The  powder  is  run  into  tanks 
in  which  the  coarser  and  heavier  particles  settle,  while  the 
liner  chalk  passes  on  to  other  tanks  in  which  it  settles.  When 
the  settling  tanks  ai"e  full,  the  chalk  or  whiting  is  dug  out 
and  dried.  When  partially  dry  it  is  cut  into  masses  of  a 
cubical  shape  and  dried.     When  dry  it  is  ground. 

Paris  white  is  a  finer  quality  of  whiting,  but  the  grinding 


COLORS  63 

is  more  thoroughly  done.  Spanish  white  is  a  name  given 
to  Paris  white  sold  in  a  cylindrical  form  prepared  by  mould- 
ing the  wet  material  into  that  form,  and  allowing  it  to  dry 
in  the  open  air. 

Whiting  is  a  dull  white  powder  of  an  amorphous  char- 
acter, and  soft  to  the  feel.  It  is  quite  insoluble  in  pure 
water,  but  is  soluble  in  water  containing  carbonic  acid  gas. 

Kaolin  or  China  clay  is  essentially  a  hydrated  silicate  of 
alumina.  It  is  a  natural  product  and  only  requires  levi- 
gating and  drying  to  prepare  it  for  use  as  a  pigment.  It 
occurs  in  large  deposits  along  with  other  constituents  of 
undecomjDosed  granite,  the  china  clay  usually  forming  from 
15  to  20  per  cent  of  the  whole  deposit. 

Kaolin  is  a  fine,  white  amorphous  powder,  having  slight 
adhesive  properties  and  adhering  to  the  fingers  when  moist. 
The  best  qualities  have  a  very  soft  unctuous  feel  and  a 
pure  white  tint,  while  the  common  qualities  are  rather 
rougher  and  of  a  more  or  less  yellowish  hue. 

As  a  pigment  kaolin  is  quite  permanent,  resisting  expos- 
ure to  the  atmosphere  and  to  light  for  any  length  of  time. 
It  is,  however,  not  much  used  as  a  pigment.  In  oil  it 
loses  its  body  and  becomes  more  or  less  transparent.  It 
can  be  used  in  water  colors  and  in  distemper  work  with 
good  results,  and  is  emjDloyed  in  paper-making  and  paper- 
staining. 

Yellows.  Chrome  yellows  are  chromates  of  lead,  produced 
by  mixing  dilute  solutions  of  acetate  or  nitrate  of  lead  and 
bichromate  of  potash.  This  makes  a  medium  tint  known 
as  middle  chrome.  The  addition  of  sulphate  of  lead  makes 
this  paler,  when  it  is  known  as  lemon  chrome,  whereas  the 
addition  of  caustic  lime  makes  an  orange  chrome  of  a 
darker  color.  The  chromes  mix  well  with  oil  and  with 
white  lead  either  in  oil  or  water.  They  stand  the  sun  well, 
but  like  other  lead  salts,  become  dark  in  bad  air.  Chrome 
yellow  is  frequently  adulterated  with  gypsum. 

Naples  yellow  is  a  salt  of  lead  and  antimony,  supposed 


64 


CYCLOPEDIA  OP  PAlNTINdl 


to  have  been  originally  made  from  a  natural  volcanic  prod- 
uct at  Naples.  It  is  not  so  brilliant  as  chrome,  but  has  the 
same  characteristics.  King's  yellow  is  made  from  arsenic, 
and  is  therefore  a  dangerous  color  to  handle,  or  use  for  in- 
ternal work.  It  is  not  durable,  and  it  injures  several  other 
colors  when  mixed  with  them.  Chinese  yellow,  arsenic  yel- 
low and  yellow  orpiment  are  other  names  for  this  yellow. 

Yellow  ochre  is  a  natural  clay  colored  by  oxide  of  iron, 
and  found  abundantly  in  many  parts  of  the  world.  It  is 
not  very  brilliant,  but  is  well  suited  for  distemper  work, 
as  it   is   not   affected  by  light  or  air.     It  does  not  lose  its 


Fig.   19.     Round  Badger  Blender. 


color  when  mixed  with  lime  washes  as  many  other  colors  do. 
There  are  several  varieties  of  ochres,  all  having  the  same 
characteristics  differing  only  in  color  which  varies  from  a 
golden  to  a  dark  brown. 

All  the  hues  and  tints,  from  the  palest  lemon  cadmium 
to  the  orange  red,  are  due  to  one  compound  only  of  cad- 
mium, namely  the  sulphide,  which  contains  112  parts  by 
weight  of  cadmium  to  32  parts  of  sulphur.  As  commonly 
prepared  cadmium  yellow  is  of  an  orange  hue;  when  this 
compound  separates  slowly  from  a  solution,  or  is  made  in 
any  way  to  take  a  dense  or  aggregated  form,  it  becomes 


COLORS  65 

of  a  decided  reddish  orange.  The  orange-yellow  variety, 
when  very  finely  ground,  becomes  less  red  and  more  in- 
clined to  yellow.  Some  of  the  jialest  cadmium  yellows  con- 
tain white  pigments  or  flour  of  sulphur,  added  to  reduce 
their  depth  of  color.  Yellow  cadmium  is  prepared  in  sev- 
eral ways.  A  slightly  acid  solution  of  any  cadmium  salt  is 
prepared  and  through  it  is  passed  a  current  of  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  gas.  The  product  thus  obtained  has  a  pure 
chrome  yellow  shade.  A  lemon  yellow  shade  may  be  ob- 
tained by  dissolving  1  pound  of  cadmium  sulphate  in  4  gal- 
lons of  water  and  adding  1^4  gallons  of  the  ordinary  yel- 
low ammonium ,  sulphide. 

Cobalt  yellow  is  a  compound  of  the  nitrates  of  cobalt  and 
potassium.  It  is  prepared  by  precipitating  cobalt  nitrate 
with  sodium  carbonate,  dissolving  the  precipitate  in  acetic 
acid  and  adding  a  strong  solution  of  potassium  nitrate.  On 
allowing  the  mixture  to  stand  for  some  time  the  color  is 
gradually  precipitated,  and  is  collected,  washed  and  dried, 
when  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Cobalt  yellow  is  a  pure  yellow  color,  and  is  almost  trans- 
parent whether  used  in  water  or  oil  painting. 

Orange  ochre  also  called  Spanish  ochre  is  a  very  bright 
yellow  ochre,  burnt,  by  which  operation  it  acquires  warmth, 
color,  transparency  and  depth. 

Mars  orange  is  an  artificial  ochre  similar  to  the  above. 
It  is  made  by  taking  equal  weights  of  ferrous  sulphate  and 
alum,  and  adding  a  solution  of  cai'bonate  of  soda,  thereby 
precipitating  the  iron  and  alumina.  The  precipitate,  which 
forms  a  yellow  pigment,  the  so-called  Mars  yellow,  is  col- 
lected, washed  well  with  water,  dried  and  converted  into 
orange,  by  slightly  calcining. 

Oxford  ochre  is  a  native  of  the  neighborhood  of  Oxford, 
England ;  it  is  semi-opaque,  of  a  warm  yellow  color,  and 
of  a  soft  argillaceous  texture,  absorbent  of  water  and  oil, 
in  both  ©f  which  it  may  be  used  with  safety,  according  to 


66  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  PAINTING 

the  general  character  of  yellow  ochres,  of  which  it  is  one 
of  the  best. 

Stone  ochre  has  been  confounded  with  the  preceding, 
which  it  frequently  resembles,  as  does  also  Roman  ochre. 
True  stone  ochres  are  found  in  balls  or  globular  masses  of 
various  sizes  in  the  solid  body  of  stones  lying  near  the  sur- 
face of  rocks  among  the  quai-ries  in  Gloucestershire,  Eng- 
land, and  elsewhere.  These  balls  are  of  a  smooth  compact 
texture,  in  general  free  from  grit,  and  of  a  powdery  frac- 
ture; they  vary  exceedingly  in  color,  from  yellow  to  brown 
murrey  and  gray,  but  do  not  differ  in  other  respects  from 
the  preceding,  and  may  be  safely  used  in  oil  or  water  in 
the  several  modes  of  painting.  Varieties  of  ochreous  colors 
are  produced  by  burning  and  compounding  with  lighter, 
brighter  and  darker  colors,  but  often  very  injuriously  and 
adversely  to  a  certainty  of  operation,  effect  and  durability. 

Raw  sienna  is  a  ferruginous,  or  impregnated  with  iron, 
native  pigment,  and  appears  to  be  an  iron  ore  which  may 
be  considered  as  a  crude,  natural  yellow  lake,  firm  in  sub- 
stance, of  a  glossy  fracture,  and  very  absorbent.  It  is 
in  many  respects  a  valuable  pigment,  of  rather  an  impure 
yellow  color,  but  has  more  body  and  transparency  than 
the  ochres,  and  being  little  liable  to  change  by  the  action 
of  either  light,  time,  or  impure  air,  it  may  be  safely  used, 
according  to  its  powers,  either  in  oil  or  water,  and  in  all 
the  modes  of  practice.  By  burning,  it  becomes  more  trans- 
parent and  drying,  and  changes  color  to  a  red  brown.  Raw 
sienna  is  a  valuable  color  in  graining. 

There  are  several  pigments  called  yellow  lake,  varying 
in  color  and  appearance  according  to  the  coloring  substances 
used,  and  modes  of  preparation;  they  are  usually  in  the 
form  of  drops,  and  their  colors  are  in  general  of  a  bright 
yellow,  very  transparent,  and  not  liable  to  change  in  an 
impure  atmosphere,  qualities  which  would  render  them 
very  valuable  pigments  were  they  not  soon  discolored 
and   even   destroyed    by   the   opposite    influences   of   oxygen 


COLORS  67 

and  light,  both  in  water  and  oil,  in  which  latter  vehicle, 
like  other  lakes  in  general,  they  are  bad  dryers,  and  do  not 
stand  the  action  of  white  lead  or  metallic  colors.  If  used, 
therefore,  it  should  be  as  simple  as  possible. 


COLOR  HARMONY. 

The  most  difficult  subject  with  which  the  painter  has  to 
deal  is  that  of  color  harmony.  In  other  words,  how  to  use 
different  colors  in  decoration  in  such  a  manner  as  to  pro- 
duce a  perfect  harmony  and  a  pleasing  result.  The  sub- 
ject is  a  difficult  and  comprehensive  one,  and  it  would  be 
impossible  within  the  limits  of  this  book  to  do  justice  to  it 
A  few  general  hints,  however,  will  no  doubt  be  of  service. 

It  should  first  be  recognized  that  there  are  distinct  rules 
and  laws  regulating  harmony  in  color.  Just  as  some  people 
have  an  ear  quick  to  recognize  the  slightest  discord,  so 
some  are  fortunate  enough  to  possess  an  inherent  talent 
for  recognizing  color  haiTaony.  It  ie  to  be  feared  that  while 
the  musical  ear,  so  to  speak,  is  fairly  common,  the  ability 
to  harmonize  colors  is  much  rarer.  Speaking  generally, 
ladies  have  more  natural  talent  in  matters  concerning  color 
than  men  have.  Possibly  the  reason  is  that  they  are  called 
upon  more  frequently  to  choose  and  determine  upon  matters 
relating  to  color  in  connection  with  their  dress.  It  is  true 
that  if  one  is  inclined  to  be  satirical  one  might  suggest  that 
some  ladies,  judging  by  the  extraordinai-y  combination  of 
colors  they  wear,  must  be  color  blind.  It  has  been  proved 
by  statistics  that  one  person  in  ten  is  color  blind,  but  this 
does  not  mean  wholly  devoid  of  the  ability  to  distinguish 
one  color  from  another,  but  simply  that  there  are  certain 
colors  which  the  person  who  is  color  blind  cannot  distin- 
guish from  others. 

In  almost  everyday  work  the  painter  is  called  upon  to 
mix  colors  that  shall  harmonize,  as,  for  instance,  to  paint 
the  woodwork  of  a  room  in  colors  that  will  harmonize  with 
the  wallpaper. 

68 


COLOR  HARMONY 


69 


Matching  the  Wallpaper.  The  simplest  plan,  and  there- 
fore the  one  which  is  usually  followed,  is  to  take  the  pre- 
vailing color  of  the  wall  and  to  use  this  on  the  woodwork 
and  introducing  other  colors  which  may  occur  in  the  paper- 
hanging  as  may  be  thought  to  be  judicious.  If  the  room  is 
a  bed-chamber  and  the  paper  has  a  cream  ground  with  a 
floral  pattern  printed  in  green  with  a  pink  flower,  the  stiles 
and  rails  of  the  doors  might  be  painted  a  light  green,  the 
panels  cream,  and  the  mouldings,  or  a  portion  of  them, 
pink.  The  same  plan  may  be  followed  successfully  with 
many  papers,   but   on   the   other  hand   much   more   pleasing 


Fig.   20.      Ox   Hair  Fresco   Brushes. 


and  artistic  results  may  often  be  obtained  by  using  a  dis- 
tinct, but  harmonizing  contrast.  A  single  example  will 
suffice.  A  striped  wallpaper,  printed  in  brilliant  red,  might 
cause  wonderment  in  the  eyes  of  a  novice  as  to  how  it 
could  possibly  be  used  successfully  in  an  ordinary  room. 
The  excessive  brilliancy  might  at  first  sight  appear  to  be 
certain  to  produce  an  effect  too  glaring  to  make  a  comfort- 
able living-room.  Yet  such  a  paper  used  in  a  room  very 
soberly  furnished  say,  with  old  dark  oak,  ebony  or  black 
walnut,  would  look  very  handsome,  or  in  a  more  modern 
room  tlie   doors,  skirting,  in  fact  the  whole  of  the  wood- 


70  CYCLOPEDIA    OF   PAINTING 

work,   might    be    finished    in    white    enamel,    and    the    effect 
would  also  be  very  g'ood. 

Contrasting  Harmonies.  From  this  single  example  it  can 
readily  be  seen  that  contrasting  colors  often  give  the 
very  best  results.  A  Avail  painted  green  may  look  very 
monotonous,  but  if  a  frieze,  having  some  bright  red  used 
liberally  in  it,  is  used  in  conjunction  there  will  be  a  vast 
difference  in  the  ajipearance  of  the  apartment. 

RED. 

A  Red  Wall.  Red  may  graduate  from  Indian  red  to 
Avhat  would  i^ractieally  be  a  warm  gray.  Any  color  going 
with  a  selected  tone  or  tint  needs  to  be  modified  so  as  to 
harmonize  with  it.  If  a  wall  has  a  paper  colored  in  light 
red  and  gold,  and  it  is  desirable  that  the  woodwork  should 
be  red  too,  it  must  differ  from  the  color  of  the  wall  in  tone 
and  in   intensity. 

A  Crimson  Wall  may  have  amber  woodwork  with  cream 
colored  mouldings,  or  they  maj'  be  heliotrojie  for  contrast. 

A  Scarlet  Wall  may  have  light  snuff  brown,  or  a  sage 
green,  for  the  woodwork,  with  yellow  green  mouldings,  or 
they  may  be  white. 

A  Yellow  Red  Wall,  in  which  scarlet  has  been  tempered 
Avith  an  excess  of  chrome,  will  bear  a  raAV  .umber  tone  of 
brown  for  the  Avoodwork,  with  ivory  or  white  mouldings. 

A  Pink  Toned  Wall.  With  this  the  Avoodwork  may  be  a 
yelloAvish  green,  Avith  or  Avithout  straw  colored  mouldings, 
or  two  shades  of  citrine,  with  pearl  gray  for  contrast  in 
the  mouldings. 

For  a  Dark  Red,  inclining  to  purple,  the  AvoodAvork  may 
be   a  sage   or   myrtle   green,   Avith   amber  mouldings. 

A  Poppy  Red.  Gray  green,  lavender  and  black  may  be 
used  for  this. 

All  warm  tones  and  shades  of  green  or  gray  may  be  used 
with  red,  provided  they  get  their  hues  by  contrast  Avith 
the   red.      Any    blue   associated    wi1li    red    must   be   slaty   or 


COLOR    HARMONY  71 

piu-ple  in  tone.  If  the  color  of  a  wallpaper  is  heliotrope, 
inclined  to  red,  the  woodwork  m?y  be  cream.  If  the  helio- 
trope inclines  to  yellow,  straw  color  should  be  adopted. 

BLUE. 

A  Blue  Wall  of  a  Purple  Tone.  With  this  yellowish 
orange,  amber,  salmon  pink  or  terra  cotta  will  harmonize 
according   to    the   value   of   the   wall   color. 

A  Peacock  Tone  or  Blue  Wall.  This  calls  for  orange 
red,  deep  amber,  warm  brown,  cool  brown,  or  both. 

A  Sapphire  Blue  Wall.  Chocolate  woodwork  in  two 
tones,  with  amber  mouldings.  Pearl  gray  and  cream  will  go 
with   this   color, 

A  Wall  of  an  Ultramarine  Tone.  Light  warm  gray  and 
cool   yellow  brown   go  happily  Avith   this. 

A  Neutral  Blue  Wall  will  unite  with  citron  and  choco- 
late, or  a  warm  gray  green,  or  a  blue  green  gray  and  sal- 
mon. 

A  Slate  Colored  Wall  of  a  Blue  Tone.  For  this  there  is 
plum  color  and  lavender,  i^uee  and  orange  to  choose  from. 

YELLOW. 

This  color  ranges  from  a  rich  sienna  to  a  lemon  tone, 
from  citrine  to   a  cream 

A  Yellow  Wall.  Plum  coloi%  slate,  brown  or  citrine  may 
be   used   with    this. 

A  Gold  Colored  Wall.  The  woodwork  may  be  in  two 
tones   of   lavender,    with   citrine   mouldings. 

An  Orange  Colored  Wall.  The  color  for  the  wood  may  be 
purple  tone  of  red,  with  maroon  mouldings,  or  if  light 
mouldings  be  required,  citrine  would  serve. 

A  Canary  Colored  Wall.  Vellum  color,  with  deep  ivory 
mouldings,  may  be  adopted  for  the  woodwork. 

A  Deep  Terra  Cotta  WaU.  A  selection  from  buff,  sage 
green,  Indian  red,  vermilion,  white  and  black  either  or  any. 
may  be  selected,  the  strong  colors  in  the  small  parts. 


72 


CTCLOPEDLV   OF   P.UNTINa 


Fig.  21.     Fresco  Bristle  Brushes. 


COLOR   HARMONY  73 

A  Primrose  Tone  of  Wall.  Tones  of  snuff  orown,  me- 
ilinin  yellow  green,  and  lavender  may  be  selected. 

A  Neutral  or  Drab  Wall.  Shades  of  olive  green,  Vene- 
tian red,  and  lilac  go  well  together. 

BROWN. 

This  color  is  perhaps  the  best  wearing  color  for  wood- 
work. There  are  infinite  tints  and  shades,  from  sober  to 
rich,  from  cool  to  warm.     Blue  agrees  especially  with  brown. 

Deep  brown,  light  bine,  and  gold  go  well  together. 

Light  Purple  Tone  of  Brown  Wall.  The  woodwork  may 
be  yellow  red,  with  cream  mouldings. 

A  Brown  Ingrain  Wall.  The  woodwork  may  be  in  t\^o 
tones,  made  from  indigo  blue,  with  amber  mouldings. 

A  Gold  Colored  Brown  Wall  would  unite  with  woodwork 
of  a  red  tone  of  purple,  with  plima  colored  mouldings,  or  a 
warm  gray  may  be  used. 

Burnt  Sienna  Brown  Tone  of  Wall.  With  this,  salmon 
and  myrtle  harmonize. 

GREEN. 

This  color,  so  extensive  in  nature,  will  agree  with  all 
colors,  provided  they  are  toned  to  suit  each  other,  warm 
or  cold,  neutral  or  bright. 

An  Olive  Green  Wall  will  agree  with  maroon  woodwork 
with  a  crimson  lake,  straw  or  pink  tone  for  the  mouldings. 

A  Medium  Green  Colored  Wall.  If  two  tones  of  red, 
a  crimson  tone  and  a  yellow  tone  be  adopted,  the  mould- 
ings, if  desired,  may  be  a  salmon  buff. 

A  Gray  Green  Wall  may  have  a  primrose  tone  of  wood- 
work, with  a  scarlet  tone  for  mouldings. 

A  Moss  Green  Tone  of  Wall  will  associate  well  with 
citrine  woodwork,  and  salmon  colored  panels  or  mouldings. 

A  Pea  or  Leaf  Green  Wall  goes  well  with  a  chocolate 
and  a  lavender. 


74  CYCLOPEDIA   OP   PAINTING 


GRAY. 

This  neutral  color  agrees  with  and  helps  every  other 
color. 

A  Warm  Gray  Wall.  With  this  the  woodwork  may  well 
be  a  tawny  leather  color,  with  either  buff  or  cream  in 
the  mouldings.  A  quiet  red  would  also  suit. 

A  Silver  Gray  Wall  sympathizes  with  a  salmon  color,  as 
well  as  with  a  deep  blue.  Should  there  be  blue  and  red 
in  the  pattern  on  the  paper,  the  styles  of  the  woodwork 
could  then  be  a  delicate  raw  umber  tone  of  broAvn.  The 
mouldings  the  same  brown,  with  burnt  sienna  added  to  it. 
The  panel  may  be  a  cameo  pink.  A  snuff  colored  brown 
would  also  do  well. 

A  Drab  Tone  of  Wall,  having  an  ornament  upon  it,  low 
in  tone,  a  citrine  for  instance,  would  need  some  force  in 
the  woodwork.  A  rich  burnt  sienna  brown  suggests  itself 
for  this,  with  a  reddish  brown  for  the  mouldings. 

These  schemes  of  color  can  be  reversed.  Should  the 
general  tone  of  the  wallpaper  be  that  tone  suggested  here 
for  the  woodAvork,  it  takes  then  the  color  of  the  paper. 

Color  Combinations.  The  following  list  is  based  upon 
Chevreul,  Briicke,  Rood  and  other  experimenter's: 

Normal  red  Avith  violet Bad. 

"  blue     Excellent. 

"  blue   green    Good,  but  strong. 

"  green    Good,  but  hard. 

"  green  yellow Fair. 

'  *  yelloAV    Unpleasing. 

Scarlet  Avith  violet  Bad. 

' '  turquoise   Good. 

"  blue    Good. 

'*  yellow    Unpleasing. 


COLOR   HARMONY 


75 


Orange  red  with  violet Good. 

"  purple    Fair. 

' '  blue    Excellent. 

"  turquoise    Good. 

' '  blue  green   Unpleasing. 

' '  yellow   green    Fair. 

Orange  Avith  purple Bad. 

' '  violet    Good. 

' '  blue    Good,  but  strong. 

"  turquoise     Good. 

"  blue  green   Good. 

"  green    Fair. 

Orange  yellow  with  purple Good. 

"  violet    Excellent. 

"  blue    Good. 

' '  turquoise    Fair. 

"  blue  green    Moderate, 

' '  green    Bad. 

Yellow  with  violet   Excellent. 

purple    Good. 

normal  red   Poor. 

turquoise     Moderate. 

blue  green Bad. 

green  Bad. 

Greenish  yellow  with  purple Good. 

"  violet    Excellent. 

"  scarlet    Strong  and  hard. 

"  orange  red    Fair. 

"  turquoise     Bad. 

"  normal  blue    Good. 

Yellowish  green  with  normal  red Good,  but  hard. 

"  purple  Difficult. 

"  blue   green    Bad. 

"  blue   Good. 


7o  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

Normal  gTeen  with   i)urple Strong,  but  hard. 

"  scarlet    Difficult. 

'  *  orange  red   Hard. 

'*  turquoise    Bad. 

Blue  green  with  purple Fair. 

"  violet    Good. 

"  blue    Bad. 

*'  green    Bad. 

*'  yellowish  green  Bad. 

*'  turquoise    Bad. 


COLOR  MIXING. 

The  following  compound  colors  or  tints  can  be  made  by 
mixing  the  colors  as  given  herewith.  The  exact  shades  re- 
quired can  be  made  to  suit  by  the  exercise  of  a  little  judg- 
ment in  proportioning  the  colors. 

BLUES. 

When  it  is  desired  to  tone  a  blue  down,  a  little  burnt 
sienna    and    white    should    be    added. 


Fig.  22.      Angular  Bristle  Fresco  Blushes. 

Antwerp  Blue.  This  color  should  always  be  bought  i-eady 
made.  If  necessary  to  imitate  it,  mix  one  part  of  bright 
green  with  two  parts  of  ulti'amarine,  add  a  very  little  zinc 
or  other  white,  but  not  lead.  Brunswick  blue  is  frequently 
used  in  the  place  of  Antwerp  blue. 

Azure    Blue.     One    part    of    ultramarine    blue    and    forty 

77 


78  CYCLOPEDIA  OP   PAINTING 

parts  of  zinc  white.  Another  shade  may  be  obtained  by 
mixing  forty-four  parts  of  white,  twenty-nine  of  green  and 
twenty-seven  of  blue.  Or  celestial  blue  and  a  little  red 
on  a  base  of  white  will  give  an  azure  shade. 

Berlin  Blue.     This  is  another  name  for  Prussian  blue. 

Blue  Grass  Tint.  One  part  of  Prussian  blue,  three  parts 
of  emerald  gi'een,  seven  parts  of  white  lead. 

Bremen  Blue.  This  is  a  color  to  be  bought  only  ready 
made.  It  is  not  much  used,  and  is  not  suitable  for  an  oil 
color. 

Bronze  Blue.  A  dark  blue  color,  which  may  be  made  by 
mixing  three  parts  of  black  with  one  of  Prussian  blue. 

Brunswick  Blue.  This  is  sold  ready  made,  but  can  be 
imitated  by  adding  white  lead  to  Prussian  blue  in  sufiicient 
quantity'   to   obtain   the   desired   tint. 

Coeruleum.  This  is  an  artist's  color  of  a  light  and  some- 
what greenish  blue  tone.  An  imitation  may  be  made  from 
ultramarine  and  white,  with  a  little  yellow,  although  the 
color  is  a  difficult  one  to  imitate  successfully. 

Celestial  Blue.  About  equal  parts  of  Prussian  blue, 
chi'ome  g-reen  and  white  lead  will  give  this  color,  but  there 
should  be  most  white,  and  the  tint  should  be  more  blue  than 
green. 

Chinese   Blue.     Another  name   for  Prussian  blue. 

Cobalt.  This  color  is  one  of  the  best  artist's  colors,  and 
cannot  be  successfully  imitated.  It  is  a  beautiful  and  most 
useful  color,  but  unfortunately  it  is  expensive,  and  it  is 
therefore  used  only  in  the  finest  w'ork. 

Dark  Blue.  Obviously  this  is  no  definite  color.  Manufac- 
turers often  use  one  part  of  white,  two  of  chrome  green, 
and  seven  of  Prussian  blue.  But  ultramarine,  or  indeed 
any  blue,  may  be  used,  and  this  may  be  first  lightened  with 
white,  and  black  added  as  may  be  desired. 

Fog  Blue.  Equal  parts  of  burnt  sieinia  and  Prussian 
blue,  lightened  up  with  about  twenty  parts  of  white  lead. 

French  Blue.     Mix  four  parts  of  while,  one  of  green,  and 


COLOR   MIXING  79 

four  of  ultramarine  blue.  The  name  is  also  applied  to  the 
best    quality    of    artificial    ultramarine. 

Grobelin  Blue.  Mix  together  four  parts  of  ivory  black, 
two  of  white,  one  of  chrome  green,  and  three  of  Prussian 
blue. 

Granite  Blue.  To  produce  this  shade  mix  two  parts  of 
black  with  six  of  white  and  one  of  ultramarine  blue. 

Heliotrope.  This  color  is  obtained  by  using  two  parts 
of  zinc  white,  three  of  bright  red,  and  four  of  ultramarine 
blue. 

Implement  Blue.  This  is  made  simi:>ly  by  mixing  ultra- 
marine with  white.  Barytes  and  zinc  mixed  are  frequently 
used  for  the  white,  as  lead  cannot  be  employed  in  the  pres- 
ence of  ultramarine. 

Indigo.  This  dark  blue  is  a  natural  vegetable  pigment. 
An  imitation  may  be  produced  by  using  nine  parts  of  black 
and  four  of  Prussian  blue,  but  this  will  not  look  like  the 
real  thing.  Indigo  should  not  be  mixed  with  lead  or  lead 
chromates.  It  is  a  very  useful  color  and  deserves  to  be 
used  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  it  is  at  present. 

Lavender.  Three  parts  of  ultramarine  blue  and  one  part 
of  carmine,  added  to  zinc  as  a  base,  give  a  very  good  laven- 
der tint  for  inside  work.  Ivory  black  mixed  with  a  little 
carmine  and  ultramarine  and  added  to  white  lead  may  be 
employed   for  outside  work. 

Light  Blue.  This  is  simply  an  ultramarine  blue  tint 
jiioduced  by  the  addition  of  zinc  white,  or  the  color  may  be 
obtained  by  tinting  Avhite  lead  with  Prussian  blue. 

Lime  Blue.  This  is  a  color  much  used  formerly  for  mix- 
ing distemper,  but  artificial  ultramarine  has  to  a  great  ex- 
tent supplanted  it.  It  must  not  be  used  in  oil.  The  color 
usually  sold  for  lime  blue  is  a  variety  of  ultramarine. 

Marine  Blue.  A  very  dark  blue,  which  is  obtained  by 
mixing  one  part  of  laltramarine  blue  with  nine  of  ivory 
black. 

Mascot.     This   is   a   very   dark   blue   shade,   which   is  got 


80 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 


by  mixing  black  and  blue  in  the  proportion  of  seven  parts 
of  the  former  to  one  of  the  latter  with  a  very  little  green. 

Mauve.  Four  parts  of  cobalt,  twelve  parts  of  oxide  of 
zinc,  and  one  part  of  carmine  lake  give  an  excellent  mauve, 
or  the  color  may  be  obtained  by  mixing  j-ellow  ochre,  blue 
black,  and  Venetian  red  with  a  little  white  lead.  Another 
shade  is  obtained  with  blue,  red  and  white  mixed  in  the  fol- 
lowing proportions:  blue  three  parts;  white,  two  parts;  red, 
one  part.  Or  white  may  be  tinted  with  ivory  black,  carmine 
and  ultramarine. 


Fig.   2."..      (\iiiul   Hair  Striping  Pencils. 


Methyl  Blue.  Mix  green  with  twelve  times  its  (luantity 
of  blue  and  a  touch  of  red. 

Mountain  Blue.  One  part  of  ivory  black,  two  parts  of 
rose  madder,  three  parts  of  cobalt  blue,  and  four  parts  of 
white  lead.     This  color  is  only  intended  for  artists'  use. 

Navy  Blue.  Ivoiy  or  drop  black  mixed  with  one-fourth 
the  quantity  of  blue  will  give  this  shade. 

Neutral  Blue.  A  series  of  neutral  blues  may  be  made 
by  tinting  white  lead  with  Prussian  blue  and  adding  burnt 
umber,  the  quantity  of  blue  and  umber  being  varied  accord- 
ing to  the  tint  required.  Good  neutral  l)lues  may  also  be 
madfl  by  tinting  white  with  raw  umber  and  a  Little  Prussian 


COLOR   MIXING  81 

blue.  Add  either  a  little  burnt  sienna  if  a  warm  neutral 
is  requii'ed,  or  a  little  black  if  one  cool  in  appeajrance  is  de- 
sired. 

Nile  Blue.  Mix  a  little  white  with  Prussian  blue  and 
chrome  green,  using-  rather  less  of  the  latter  than  the 
foi-mer.  The  result  is  a  pale  greenish  blue. 

Normandy  Blue.  To  get  this  greenish  blue  shade  mix 
green  and  blue  in  about  equal  proportions  with  white. 

Oriental  Blue.  One  part  of  lemon  chrome  yellow,  two 
parts  of  Prussian  blue  and  twenty  parts  of  white  lead. 

Peacock  Blue.  This  color  is  one  upon  which  opinion 
varies  considerably.  A  splendid  color  is  made  by  taking 
cobalt  as  a  base  and  adding  a  little  white  and  a  little 
Chinese  blue. 

Perfect  Blue.  Some  manufacturers  produce  this  beau- 
tifully rich  color.     It  is  very  like  cobalt,  but  slightly  darker. 

Pompeian  Blue.  This  is  made  h\  tinting  white  Avith 
ultramarine  and  adding  a  little  vermilion  and  Italian  ochre. 

Porcelain  Blue.  To  get  this  shade  mix  one  part  of  zinc 
white  and  chrome  green  with  four  parts  of  ultramarine  blue 
and  a  touch  of  black. 

Prussian  Blue.  This  color  is  certainly  the  most  import- 
ant blue  the  painter  has.  It  cannot  be  imitated.  It  works 
well  in  both  water  and  oil,  and  is  transparent.  It  is  very 
strong  and  care  must  be  exercised  in  using  it  lest  too  great 
a  ciuantitj'  is  added  to  a  batch  of  paint,  which  might  be 
spoilt  in  consequence. 

Quaker  Blue.  Add  a  little  black  to  Prussian  blue,  and 
lighten  up  vv'ith  Avhite. 

Robin's  Egg  Blue.  Use  white  for  base,  tint  with  ultra- 
marine until  a  fairly  strong  blue  is  obtained,  and  then  tinge 
with  a  little  lemon'  chrome  green. 

Royal  Blue.  This  is  made  by  adding  a  little  white  to 
Prussian  blue  with  a  touch  of  crimson  lake.  Some  manu- 
facturei"s  make  -a  very  rich  blue,  which  they  sell  under  the 
name  of  Royal  blue. 


82  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  PAINTING 

Sapphire  Blue.  One  part  of  Chinese  blue  mixed  with 
double  the  quantity  of  oxide  of  zinc.  This  should  not  be 
used  for  outside  work. 

Sea  Blue.  Two  parts  of  Prussian  blue,  three  parts  of 
raw  sienna,  thirty  parts  white. 

Sky  Blue.  One  part  of  Prussian  blue  added  to  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  parts  of  white  lead  give  a  sky  blue,  but 
some  prefer  cobalt,  and  this  is  for  many  purposes  doubt- 
less the  best.  Still  another  method  of  obtaining  sky  blue 
is  to  tint  white  lead  with  a  little  lime  blue,  adding  a  very 
little  middle  chrome,  but  the  latter  is  more  suitable  for  a 
distemper  color  than  it  is  for  an  oil  paint,  as  lime  blue 
is  not  very  lasting  in  oil. 

Steel  Blue.  Zinc  white  tinted  with  lime  blue  gives  this 
color  for  distemper. 

Stone  Blue.  One  part  of  raw  umber,  twice  the  quantity 
of  Prussian  blue  on  a  base  of  white  lead  will  give  this  color. 

Transparent  Violet.  Mix  together  four  parts  of  ultra- 
marine blue  and  one  part  of  crimson  lake.  This  is  suitable 
only  for  artists'  use. 

Turquoise  Blue.  Two  parts  of  cobalt  blue,  one  part  of 
emerald    green,   twelve   parts   of  white   lead. 

Ultramarine.  This  is  one  of  the  chief  blues  used  by 
painters,  and  must  be  bought  ready  made.  It  cannot  be 
imitated,  but  it  can  be  bought  in  many  different  qualities. 
It  must  not  be  mixed  with  chromes  or  white  lead,  as  it  con- 
tains sulphur. 

BROWNS. 

The  painter  will  probably  be  surprised  at  finding  the 
number  of  browns  obtainable. 

Acorn  Brown.  This  is  very  similar  to  a  rich  chocolate, 
and  may  be  made  in  the  same  way. 

Alderney.  This  is  an  orange  brown  in  hue,  and  may  be 
made  by  mixing  fourteen  parts  of  black,  one  of  white,  two 
of  orange  and  three  of  yellow. 


COLOR   MIXING 


83 


Arabian  Brown.  This  is  a  dark  terra-cotta,  and  may  be 
made  by  adding  white  and  black  to  Indian  red. 

Argus  Brown.  This  is  a  very  dark  brown,  and  may  be 
made  by  mixing  twelve  parts  of  black  with  two  parts  of 
orange  and  one  part  of  yellow. 

Auburn  Tan.  Mix  together  one  part  of  burnt  umber,  three 
parts  of  golden  ochre  and  twenty  parts  of  white  lead. 


Fig.  24.      Camel  Hair  Pencils. 


Autumn  Leaf.  This  is  also  called  leather  lake.  It  may 
be  made  by  mixing  on  a  base  of  white  lead,  French  ochre, 
orange  chrome  yellow  and  Venetian  red. 

Bismark.  A  shade  of  this  name  may  be  produced  by  using 
two  parts  of  black,  one  of  red  and  one  of  orange,  which 
mixed  together  fonn  an  orange  brown. 

Bismark  Brown.  This  color  is  obtained  by  mixing  with 
six  parts  of  black,  one  part  of  orange  and  one  of  yellow, 


84  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

Bistre.  This  color  is  principally  used  by  artists.  It  must 
not  be  mixed  with  oil,  and  it  is  not  always  reliable  for  its 
permanency.  It  may  be  imitated  by  mixing  together  ten 
parts  of  black  with  two  of  red  and  a  little  green. 

Bronze  Brown.  Black  colored  with  a  little  orange  chrome 
and  bright  green. 

Brown.  The  methods  of  obtaining  different  browns  will 
be  found  under  the  headings  of  the  respective  names,  such 
as  Chestnut,  etc.  A  good  average  brown  may  be  obtained 
by  mixing  together  three  of  Indian  red,  two  joarts  of  lamp 
black  and  one  part  of  3'ellow  ochre.  A  lighter  color  is  ob- 
tained by  using  more  ochre  and  less  black,  in  fact,  a  large 
variety  of  brown  tints  may  be  produced  by  varjdng  the  pro- 
portions of  ochre  and  black. 

Burnt  Rose.  This  is  a  dark  red  brown  shade.  To  produce 
it  use  eight  parts  of  black,  one  and  half  parts  of  red,  two 
parts  of  orange,  and  one  of  blue. 

Burnt  Sienna.  This  is  a  sienna  calcined,  the  effect  being 
to  produce  a  darker  shade. 

Burnt  Umber.  This  is  a  rich  dark  greenish  brown,  but  the 
shade  varies  considerably  in  different  qualities.  Turkey 
umber  is  the  richest.  Umbers  should  always  be  purchased 
ground  ready  for  use. 

Cafe  au  Lait.  To  produce  this  shade  mix  five  parts  of 
black,  three  of  white,  one  of  yellow  and  a  little  orange.  A 
little  red  may  also  be  added  if  desired. 

Cappagh  Brown.  This  is  an  artist's  color  of  a  reddish 
brown  color,  being  very  like  umber. 

Chestnut.  This  rich  brown  may  be  obtained  by  mixing 
four  parts  of  medium  chrome  yellow  and  two  parts  of  Vene- 
tian red.    One  part  of  yellow  ochre  maj'  be  added  if  desired. 

Chocolate.  Five  parts  of  burnt  sienna  and  one  part  of 
carmine  or  lake  give  a  rich  chocolate.  A  less  expensive 
color  is  obtained  by  mixing  Indian  red  and  lamp  black  with 
a  little  yellow  ochre.  A  touch  of  vermilion  will  clear  and 
brighten   this  mixture.     Another  way  to  produce   chocolate 


COLOR   MIXING  85 

is  to  mix  twenty,  parts  of  black  with  three  parts  of  red,  but 
this  gives  a  more  or  less  muddy  shade. 

Cinnamon.  Six  parts  white  lead,  two  pai'ts  burnt  sienna, 
and  one  part  of  golden  ochi'e  make  a  good  cinnamon,  or 
French  ochre,  English  Indian  red  and  a  little  lamp  black 
will  produce  the  same  color.  Another  way  is  to  mix  Italian 
sienna  and  burnt  umber. 

Clay  Drab.  Mix  equal  parts  of  white  lead,  raw  umber 
and  raw  sienna,  and  add  a  little  chrome  if  desired.  Some 
painters  prefer  to  add  a  little  medium  chrome  yellow. 

Cocoanut  Brown.  This  shade  may  be  obtained  by  mix- 
ing one  part  of  white  lead  with  double  the  quantity  of  burnt 
umber. 

Coffee.  To  produce  this  color  mix  together  five  parts 
of  burnt  umber,  two  parts  of  yellow  ochre  and  one  part  of 
burnt  sienna. 

Copper.  Tint  zinc  white  with  French  ochre,  Italian  sienna 
and  lamp  black.  A  very  good  copper  shade  is  obtained  by 
mixing  two  parts  of  medium  chrome  yellow,  one  part  of 
Venetian  red,  and  one  part  of  drop  black  or  two  pai'ts  of 
lamp  black,  three  parts  of  medium  chrome  yellow  and  six 
parts  of  Venetian  red. 

Cork  Color.  Tint  white  lead  with  French  ochre,  Indian 
red  and  a  little  lamp  black,  or  with  raw  Italian  sienna  and 
burnt  umber. 

Dark  Drab.  French  gray,  Indian  red  and  lamp  black 
added  to  white  lead  give  this  color. 

Dark  Lava.  Mix  French  ochre,  Indian  red  and  lamp 
black,  and  lighten  with  white  lead. 

Dark  Oak.  Add  French  ochre  and  Venetian  red  to  white 
lead  as  a  base. 

Doe  Color.  This  may  be  produced  by  mixing  raw  Italian 
sienna  and  burnt  umber  with  white  lead,  or  French  ochre 
and  mineral  brown  with  a  little  lamp  black. 

Dove  Color.  White  lead,  with  a  little  Prussian  blue  and  a 
touch  of  ivory  black  will  produce  an  excellent  dove  color, 


86 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 


but  French  ochre,  Indian  red,  and  lamp  black  may  be  em- 
ployed, or  a  mixture  of  raw  and  burnt  Turkey  umber  and 
Italian  sienna. 

Drab.  A  good  drab  is  made  by  using  burnt  umber  and 
white  lead  in  the  proportion  of  one  of  the  former  to  ten 
of  the  latter,  but  raw  umber  and  a  little  Venetian  red  may 
be  used  instead. 


Fig.    25.      Red    Sable   Brushes. 


Fawn.  This  might  also  be  called  deep  drab.  It  is  pro- 
duced b}'  tinting  white  lead  with  a  mixture  of  French  ochre, 
Indian  red  and  lamp  black,  or  raw  Italian  sienna  and  raw 
Turkey  umber.  Another  shade  of  fawn  is  obtained  by  using 
eight  parts  of  white  lead,  one  part  of  chrome  yellow,  one 
part  of  Indian  red,  and  one  part  of  burnt  umber,  or  eight 
parts  of  white  lead,  two  parts  of  medium  chrome  yellow,  one 
part  Venetian  red,  and  one  part  of  biu'nt  umber. 


COLOR   MIXING  87 

Fawn,  Light.  Tint  white  with  sienna  and  a  touch  of  raw 
umber. 

Foliage  Brown.  Mix  burnt  umber  with  raw  and  burnt 
sienna  and  lif^hten  with  white  as  may  be  necessary. 

French  Ochre.  This  color,  of  course,  is  sold  ready  made, 
and  it  must  be  observed  that,  in  addition  to  the  fineness, 
the  particular  tone  of  this  color  is  very  important,  especially 
to  grainers. 

Grolden  Brown.  Sixteen  parts  of  white  lead  are  mixed 
with  one  of  burnt  sienna  and  three  parts  of  yellow  ochre. 

Indian  Brown.  Mix  equal  parts  of  Indian  red,  lamp  black 
and  yellow  ochre. 

Lava.  An  orange  brown  lava  shade  can  be  had  by  mixing 
fifteen  parts  of  black,  five  parts  of  orange,  four  of  yellow 
and  a  very  little  white. 

Leather  Brown.  Four  parts  of  yellow  ochre,  three  parts 
of  Venetian  red,  two  parts  of  white  lead,  and  one  part  of 
blue  black  give  a  rich  leather  brown.  If  a  lighter  tint  is 
required  less  black  should  be  used.  Or  the  following  recipe 
may  be  used :  mix  white  with  three  times  the  quantity  of 
red  and  the  same  amount  of  yellow.  Some  painters  use 
French  ochre  for  a  base  and  tint  with  burnt  umber  or  Vene- 
tian red. 

Light  Lava.  A  mixture  of  raw  umber  and  raw  sienna 
added  to  white  will  give  this  color. 

Light  Oak.  Add  French  ochre  and  Venetian  red  to  white 
as  a  base. 

Lizard  Bronze.  Fifteen  parts  of  black,  one  of  oi'ange, 
live  of  yellow,  and  four  of  green  will  produce  this  dark 
greenish  yellow  shade. 

Madder  G-reen.  A  reddish  brown  madder  shade  is  pro- 
duced with  one  part  blue,  three  parts  each  of  orange  and 
red,  and  six  parts  black. 

Mahogany.  Mix  orange  and  yellow  in  equal  proportions 
with  five  times  the  quantity  of  black. 

Mast    Colored    Paint.     The    following   recipe    gives    good 


88  CYCLOPEDIA    OP   PAINTING 

results.  Mix  twelve  parts  of  genuine  dry  white  lead  with 
two  parts  of  French  ochre,  two  parts  of  gray  bai-ytes,  and 
o«e  part  of  genuine  oxide  of  iron. 

Nut  Brown.  Equal  quantities  of  red  and  j^ellow  mixed 
with  ten  times  as  much  black  will  give  this  shade. 

Old  Wood.  To  get  this  shade  mix  one  part  of  blue  and 
red,  two  of  orange  and  five  of  black. 

Olive  Brown  may  be  made  by  mixing  three  parts  of  burnt 
umber  and  one  part  of  lemon  chrome  yellow;  or  another 
shade  is  given  by  mixing  equal  quantities  of  orange  and 
green  with  about  twelve  times  as  much  black.  Some  paint- 
ers add  lemon  chrome  yellow  to  raw  umber  for  a  base. 

Orange  Brown.  Two  parts  of  orange  chrome  yellow  mixed 
with  three  parts  sienna. 

Pomegranate.  A  golden  brown  shade  sometimes  called 
by  this  name  is  given  by  mixing  three  parts  of  red,  six  of 
orange,  four  of  yellow  with  twenty  parts  of  black. 

Purple  Brown.  Mix  four  parts  of  dark  Indian  red  with 
one  part  of  ultramarine  blue  and  of  lamp  black.  The  addi- 
tion of  white  lead  will  usuall^^  make  a  more  satisfactory 
tint,  if  the  shade  is  too  purple,  a  similar  quantity  of  blue 
should  be  added,  if  too  red,  more  black  may  be  used,  or  a 
little  j-ellow  added,  but  purple  brown  pigment  is  cheap. 

Raw  Sienna.  Siennas  are  valuable  earth  colors  most  use- 
ful for  staining  or  tinting,  but  jDractically  useless  as  body 
colors.  The  degree  of  transparency  determines  to  some  ex- 
tent the  quality. 

Raw  Umber.    A  valuable  earth  color. 

Russet  Brown.  Indian  red  lightened  with  white  produces 
a  tint  sometimes  called  by  this  name. 

Russet.  A  very  good  russet  shade  is  got  by  mixing  twen- 
tj^  parts  of  black,  twelve  of  red,  ten' of  orange,  three  of  yel- 
low, and  five  of  green.  Oi'  medium  chrome  green,  raw  umber, 
and  a  little  orange  chrome  yellow  added  to  white  as  a  base 
will  give  an  excellent  russet. 


COLOR   MIXING 


89 


Sandstone.     A    tinting    color    made    by    mixing   raw    and 
burnt  umber  will  produce  this  color. 


Fig.   26.      Plat   Bristle   Fitches. 


Seal  Brown.     Four  parts   burnt  umber,  one   part  golden 
ocbre. 


y 


90  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

Sepia.  This  is  a  natural  color  used  chiefly  by  artists.  It 
cannot  be  imitated  and  it  must  not  be  used  in  oil. 

Sienna  Brown.  The  color  is  variously  called  sienna  brown, 
teak  brown,  and  other  names.  It  is  made  by  mixing  burnt 
Italian  sienna  and  French  ochre  with  pure  zinc. 

Snuff  Brown.  French  ochre  and  Indian  red  added  to 
zinc  white  will  produce  this  coloi-.  Another  way  to  pro- 
duce a  snuff  color  is  to  mix  four  parts  of  medium  yellow 
and  two  parts  of  Vandyke  brown,  or  burnt  umber  may  be 
substituted  for  the  Vandyke  brown  if  desired.  Another 
snuff  color  may  be  obtained  by  mixing  burnt  umber  and  yel- 
low ochre,  tinging  with  a  little  Venetian  red. 

Tan.  Mix  ten  parts  of  burnt  sienna  and  four  parts  of 
medium  chrome  yellow  with  three  parts  of  raw  umber. 
White  lead  and  burnt  sienna,  to  which  has  been  added  a 
very  little  lamp  black,  will  also  produce  a  tan  color.  A 
very  rich  tan  color  may  be  made  from  ochre,  burnt  Turkey 
umber  and  a  little  orange  chrome  with  white  lead. 

Thrush  Brown.  One  part  yellow  ochre,  three  parts  burnt 
umber,  twelve  parts  white  lead. 

Vandyke  Brown.  This  is  an  important  brown  to  the 
house  painter.  It  cannot  be  imitated,  although  a  little  red 
added  to  umber  produces  a  color  somewhat  similar  to  it. 

Vienna  Smoke.  The  best  burnt  umber  should  be  tinted 
with  lemon  olirome  yellow  and  a  little  Venetian  red. 

Wallflower  Brown.  This  beautiful  brown  may  be  made 
by  a  mixture  of  medium  chrome  jellow  and  brown  lake.  Or 
crimson  lake  and  burnt  sienna  may  be  mixed  with  medium 
chrome. 

GRAYS. 

Argent.  A  reddish  gray  tint,  which  can  be  produced  by 
mixing  together  nine  parts  of  black,  sixteen  of  white,  one 
of  red  and  a  little  orange. 

Ash  Gray.  Lamp  black  and  a  little  French  ochre  added 
to   white   lead  give   this   color.     Another  mixture  is  as  fol- 


COLOR    MIXING  91 

lows:  two  parts  of  burnt  sienna,  three  parts  of  light  ultra- 
marine blue,  sixty  party  of  zinc  white. 

Black  Slate.  Mix  togetlier  black  and  Prussian  blue  in  the 
l)roportion  of  about  thirteen  parts  of  the  former  to  one  of 
the  latter  and  add  a  little  white. 

Dark  G-ray.  Mix  eight  parts  of  black,  one  of  white  and  a 
touch  of  red  or  blue  to  produce  this  shade;  but  practically 
any  admixture  of  black  and  white  in  which  the  former  pre- 
dominates and  to  which  has  been  added  a  little  color  will 
give  a  dai'k  gray. 

Dark  Lead.  This  is  a  dark  gray,  being  produced  simply 
by  adding  lamp  black  to  white  lead. 

Dark  Slate.  This  also  is  black  added  to  white.  The  mix- 
ture under  Black  Slate  would  answer. 

Deep  Lead.  Black,  a  little  bright  blue,  and  Indian  red 
mixed  with  white  lead  produces  this  color. 

French  Gray.  This  can  be  made  by  tinting  white  with  a 
little  ivory  or  drop  black  and  adding  a  little  carmine  oi 
crimson  lake  and  ultramarine.  This  produces  a  very  slight 
violet  tinge.  White  tinted  with  a  little  ultramarine  and 
Venetian  red  also  gives  a  good  French  gray.  Celestial  blue 
or  cobalt  may  be  used  instead  of  the  ultramarine  if  desired. 
Another  good  mixture  is  made  by  tinting  white  lead  with  one 
part  of  black  and  two  parts  of  orange  chrome. 

Granite.  French  ochre  and  lamj]  black  added  to  white 
lead  produce  this  color. 

Graystone. — Mix  five  parts  of  black  with  three  of  white 
and  three  of  blue  and  add  a  little  red. 

Gray  Drab.  Mix  five  parts  of  black  with  four  of  white 
and  a   little  deep  chrome  yellow. 

Green  Slate.  Same  as  lead,  but  with  more  black  and 
blue. 

Iron  Gray.  Mix  eight  parts  of  black  with  two  of  white 
and  a  little  orange. 

Jasper.     This  may  be  described  as  a  pepper  and  salt  shade. 


92 


CYCLOPEDIA   OP   PAINTING 


Fig.  Z7.     Artist's  Bristle  Urusljes. 


COLOR  MIXING  93 

Mix  nine  parts  of  black  with  two  of  white,  with  a  touch  of 
deep  chrome. 

Lead.  This  is  simply  a  dark  gray,  and  is  made  by  adding 
lamp  black  to  white  lead  with  sufficient  blue. 

Light  Gray.  Mix  together  one  part  of  Prussian  blue,  one 
part  of  lamp  black,  ten  parts  of  white  lead.  By  adding 
more  or  less  white  lead  a  darker  or  a  lighter  shade  mav  be 
obtained  if  required.  Another  shade  is  obtained  by  mixing 
two  parts  of  black,  eight  parts  of  white  and  one  part  of 
blue. 

Mastic.  This  is  a  dark  gray  shade.  To  produce  it  mix 
twelve  parts  of  black  with  one  of  white,  rather  less  than  one 
of  yellow  and  just  a  touch  of  orange. 

Moss  Gray.  Tint  Avhite  lead  with  French  ochre,  a  bright 
green  and  a  little  lamp  black. 

Mouse  Color.  Eleven  parts  burnt  umber,  to  which  has 
been  added  one  part  of  Prussian  blue,  mixed  with  about 
twenty  times  the  bulk  of  white  lead,  will  give  this  tint.  An- 
other shade  may  be  had  by  mixing  sixteen  parts  of  white, 
three  of  black  and  one  of  blue.  Some  painters  tint  white 
with  lamp  black  and  add  a  veiy  little  Venetian  red  and  burnt 
umber. 

Neutral  Tint.     An  artist's  color  is  sold  under  this  name. 

Olive  Gray.  Three  parts  of  lamp  black,  one  part  of 
chrome  green,  with  about  forty  times  the  quantity  of  white 
lead,  will  give  this  color. 

Opal  Gray.  One  part  of  burnt  sienna,  two  parts  of  cobalt 
blue,  and  thirty  parts  of  zinc  white. 

Payne's  Gray.  Is  an  artist's  color,  which  may  be  de- 
scribed as  a  gray  having  a  lilac  tinge. 

Pearl.  This  is  the  same  as  French  gray,  but  is  much 
lighter. 

Pearl  Gray.  Forty  parts  white  lead,  five  parts  of  ver- 
milion and  one  part  of  deep  chrome  green.  Some  deco- 
rators tint  white  lead  with  lamp  black  and  call  that  pearl 
gray.  Strictly  speaking,  however,  it  should  not  be  called  pearl 


94  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

gray,  there  being  no  color  present.  Six  parts  of  white  lead, 
two  parts  of  Venetian  red,  and  one  part  of  lamp  black  gives 
a  somewhat  dark  pearl  gray,  but  a  lighter  tint  may  easily  be 
obtained  by  adding  more  lead.  Ivory  black  answers  equally 
as  well  as  lamp  black. 

Quaker  Drab.  This  greenish  gray  shade  is  produced  by 
mixing  two  parts  each  of  yellow  and  gi-een  and  five  parts  of 
white. 

Rustic  Drab.  Tint  white  lead  with  French  ochre  and 
lamp  black. 

Silver  Gray.  Tint  white  lead  with  French  ochre  and  lamp 
black,  or  yellow  may  be  employed  instead  of  the  ochre  if 
preferred.  White  lead  tinted  with  a  little  lamp  black  and 
indigo  gives  an  excellent  silver  gray. 

Smoke  Gray.  Tint  white  lead  with  French  ochre  and  lamp 
black. 

Steel  Gray.  Tint  white  lead  with  a  mixture  of  lemon 
chrome  and  medium  chrome  and  lamp  black. 

Stone  Gray.     Add  black  and  chrome  to  white  lead. 

Verdant  Gray.  Two  parts  of  oxide  zinc  and  one  part  of 
terra  verte. 

Warm  Gray.  Tint  white  lead  with  French  ochre  and  lamp 
black  or  sienna  and  lamp  black.  A  better  mixture  is  pro- 
duced by  taking  white  as  a  base  and  adding  a  little  burnt 
sienna  and  raw  umber  with  a  very  little  burnt  umber  and  a 
touch  of  Prussian  blue. 

GREENS. 

Aloes.  A  pale  sage  green  shade.  To  obtain  it  mix  six 
parts  of  black,  three  of  white,  one  of  chrome  yellow,  and 
three  of  Brunswick  green. 

Apple  Green.  The  simplest  way  to  obtain  this  is  to  mix 
medium  chrome  green  with  about  thirty  times  the  quantity 
of  white  lead,  but  other  greens  may  be  employed  with  the 
addition  of  a  little  Prussian  blue  when  necessary.  Or  a  little 
orange  chrome  yellow  may  be  added  to  the  medium  chrome 


C30L0R  MIXING  95 

green  and  white  lead.  A  very  good  shade  ean  be  produced 
by  mixing  one  part  of  white  with  four  of  yellow  and  nine 
of  green. 

Autumn  Green.  Mix  one  part  of  chrome  yellow  with 
seven  of  black  and  two  of  emerald  green. 

Blue  Green.  Equal  proportions  of  deep  chrome  green  and 
cobalt,  or  three  parts  of  chrome  green  and  one  of  Prussian 
blue,  added  to  white  lead  in  the  proportion  of  about  four 
times  the  quantity  of  lead  to  the  mixture  of  green  and  blue, 
will  give  a  tint  which  is  sometimes  called  blue  green. 

Bottle  Green.  Mix  together  five  parts  of  medium  chrome 
green  and  one  part  of  blue  black.  A  similar  color  may  be 
obtained  by  adding  Prussian  blue  and  blue  black  and  lemon 
chrome.  Another  shade  is  made  by  using  four  parts  of  black 
and  one  of  green. 

Bronze  Green.  The  usual  method  is  to  mix  black  with 
deep  chrome  yellow,  but  indigo  may  be  used  instead  if  de- 
sired. A  much  brighter  color  is  obtained  from  a  mixture  of 
medium  chrome  yellow,  Prussian  blue  and  burnt  sienna.  Or 
the  following  recipe  may  be  used:  Medium  chrome  green 
five  parts,  blue  black  one  part,  burnt  umber  one  part.  A 
light  bronze  color  may  be  obtained  by  adding  more  green  or 
by  using  light  instead  of  medium  green.  Other  shades  of 
bronze  green  may  be  got  by  adding  a  little  lamp  black  to 
dark  chrome  green,  or  by  taking  medium  chrome  green 
and  adding  lamp  black  and  a  little  raw  umber. 

Brunswick  Green.  This  color  is  sold  in  three  shades.  It 
may  be  imitated  by  a  mixture  of  Prussian  blue  and  chrome 
yellow,  but  chrome  green,  toned  down  with  black,  is  some- 
times used. 

Chartreuse.  This  is  a  light  yellowish  green  color.  Mix 
four  of  chrome  yellow  and  five  of  chrome  green  lightenino- 
up  with  white. 

Chrome  Green.  This  color  can  be  bought  ready  made. 
To  produce  it  by   admixture,   add  Prussian  blue   to   lemon 


96  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  PAINTING 

chrome  yellow  in  the  proportion  of  about  one  part  of  blue 
to  eight  parts  of  yellow. 

Eau  de  Nil.  Tint  white  lead  with  medium  chrome  yel- 
low, emerald  green  and  a  touch  of  Prussian  blue. 

Egyptian  Green.  Add  two  parts  of  raw  umber  and  one 
part  of  lemon  chrome  yellow  to  white  lead.  Give  the  green 
tone  to  it  by  means  of  a  little  Prussian  blue. 

Elephant  Green.  A  dark  green,  obtained  by  adding  a 
little  emerald  green  to  black. 

Emerald  Green.  This  beautiful,  bright  gi-een  cannot  be 
successfully  imitated.  It  must  not  be  mixed  with  ultramarine. 
The  pigment  is  a  great  favorite  with  some  painters,  while 
others  never  use  it.  In  this  country  the  pigment  is  known 
as  Paris  green,  but  it  is  not  used  to  any  extent  by  painters, 
although  it  is  used  as  an  insecticide.  In  the  absence  of  the 
real  thing,  a  more  or  less  presentable  imitation  may  be  ob- 
tained by  mixing  eight  parts  of  white  lead  and  one  part  of 
medium  chrome  green,  or  a  light  shade  of  chrome  green  may 
be  used  without  lead.  Emerald  green,  although  so  bright, 
has  very  little  body,  but  it  is  very  useful  for  glazing.  A 
thin  finishing  coat  is  given  over  a  good  green  ground  to 
brighten  it. 

Foliage  Green.  One  part  of  blue  black  may  be  mixed  with 
four  parts  of  lemon  chrome.  Use  medium  chrome  yellow 
if  a  darker  sliade  is  required. 

French  Green.  This  is  a  bright  yellowish  green,  which 
may  be  obtained  by  adding  to  emerald  or  deep  chrome  green 
about  one-tenth  part  chrome  yellow.  Yellow  ochre  is  some- 
times used  instead. 

Gage  Green.  This  is  a  variety  of  sage  green.  It  may  bo 
made  in  the  same  way  as  pea  green,  and  when  that  is 
reached  a  little  black  should  be  added  to  bring  it  to  the  re- 
quired sage  color. 

Genuine  Green.  This  is  usually  to  be  had  ready  mixed, 
but  it  varies  considerably  in  name  as  well  as  in  the  exact  tint. 

Grass  Green.     The  color  sold  as  extra  light  chrome  green 


COLOR    MIXING  97 

makes  a  splendid  grass  green  without  any  addition,  but  if  it 
is  not  available,  lighten  up  medium  or  dark  chrome  green 
with  chrome  yellow. 

Green  Slate.  Tint  white  lead  with  a  bright  green  toned 
down  with  ochre  and  lamp  black. 

Green  Stone.  Twelve  parts  white  lead  tinted  with  one 
part  medium  chrome  green  and  one  part  of  raw  umber  give 
this  tint,  or  the  tinting  colors  may  be  French  ochre  and 
emerald  green  with  a  little  lamp  black. 

Gray  Green.  Use  ultramarine  blue,  lemon  chrome  yellow, 
blue  black  and  white  lead. 

Invisible  Green.  A  dark  green  made  by  mixing  nine  parts 
of  black  and  one  of  bright  green. 

Ivy  Green.  This  is  produced  by  a  mixture  of  French 
ochre,  lamp  black  and  Prussian  blue. 

Leaf  Bud.  This  color  is  suitable  for  inside  work.  It  is 
made  by  mixing  orange  chrome  yellow,  light  chrome  green 
and  white  lead  in  equal  proportions. 

Light  Green.  Equal  quantities  of  white  and  blue  and 
rather  more  than  twice  the  amount  of  green  give  a  very  good 
shade. 

Light  Olive  Green.  Mix  three  parts  of  middle  chrome, 
two  parts  of  black,  and  one  part  of  burnt  sienna  and  lighten 
up  with  white  lead  until  the  desired  color  is  obtained. 

Lime  Green.  This  is  sold  ready  for  use,  and  is  only  suit- 
able for  distemper.    It  cannot  be  used  with  oil. 

Manse  Green.  This  is  produced  from  a  mixture  of  a 
bright  green,  medium  chrome  yellow  and  French  ochre. 

Marine  Green.  Mix  one  part  of  middle  chrome  green  with 
four  of  black. 

Medium.  A  green  of  this  name  may  be  purchased  ready 
made.    It  is  very  similar  to  middle  Brunswick  green. 

Mignonette.  This  is  a  dark  green  shade,  obtained  by 
mixing  one  part  of  chrome  yellow  and  one  of  Prussian  blue 
with  three  parts  of  chrome  green  and  fifteen  parts  of  black. 

Muscovite.     This  is  a  dark  sage-yellow  greenish  shade.    It 


98  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  PAINTING 

may  be  obtained  by  mixing  six  parts  of  Prussian  blue, 
thirteen  of  chrome  green,  three  of  orange  chrome,  eight  of 
■white,  and  twenty  of  black. 

Moss  Green.  Tint  white  lead  with  French  ochre,  a  bright 
green  and  a  little  lamp  black. 

Moss  Rose.  This  pale  greenish  shade  is  obtained  by  mix- 
ing chrome  or  Brunswick  green,  bright  yellow  and  white  in 
the  proportions  of  one  part  green,  four  of  yellow  and  three 
of  white. 

Mountain  Green.  Add  to  medium  chrome  yellow  sufficient 
cobalt  to  produce  the  desired  hue,  adding  a  little  white  if 
necessary. 

Myrtle.  Three  parts  of  dark  chrome  green,  one  part  of 
ultramarine  blue,  and  a  little  white  lead  will  give  an  excel- 
lent myrtle  color. 

Night  Green.  Seven  parts  of  chrome  green  and  three 
parts  of  yellow  ochre  will  give  this  shade. 

Nile  Green.  Five  parts  of  white,  nine  of  emerald  green 
and  six  of  Prussian  blue  will  give  this  shade. 

Olive.  Mix  together  ten  parts  of  lemon  chrome  yellow, 
one  part  of  ultramarine  blue  and  one  part  of  light  Indian 
red.  Another  method  is  to  use  eight  parts  of  lemon  chrome 
yellow,  one  part  of  blue  black  and  one  part  of  Prussian  blue. 
Or  the  following  proportions  give  very  good  shades:  three 
parts  black,  four  parts  white,  four  parts  red,  two  parts  yel- 
low, and  eleven  parts  green.  Or,  fifteen  parts  of  white, 
twenty  of  red,  twelve  of  yellow,  and  fifty-three  of  green. 
Some  painters  add  equal  portions  of  Prussian  blue  and  lamp 
black  to  lemon  chrome  yellow  for  a  base,  or  the  base  may  be 
ochre  instead  of  chrome,  and  a  little  of  the  yellow  be  added. 

Oriental  Green.  Is  made  by  mixing  equal  proportions  of 
raw  umber  and  lemon  chrome  yellow. 

Royal  Green.     This  color  is  sold  ready  made. 

Peacock  Green.  A  mixture  of  seven  parts  of  white,  fifty 
parts  of  emerald  green  and  forty-three  of  Prussian  blue  will 
give  this  shade.     A  little  yellow  is  sometimes  added.     The 


COLOR   MIXING  99 

color  is  best  produced  by  giving  a  final  transparent  coat  over 
a  ground  color.  For  the  ground  mix  a  rich  green,  a  very 
deep  Brunswick  green  and  middle  chrome.  Over  this  apply 
a  very  thin  coat  of  a  deep  bluish  green  made  from  Prussian 
blue  and  lemon  chrome. 

Pea  Green.  Forty-eight  parts  of  white  lead  and  one  part 
of  chrome  green  will  give  this  color,  or  emerald  green  may 
be  used  if  desired.  Some  makers  mix  medium  chrome  green 
and  white  lead  in  the  proportion  of  five  parts  of  the  latter 
to  one  part  of  the  fonner  to  obtain  a  pea  green,  but  the 
proportions  may  be  varied  considerably  according  to  the 
exact  shade  required. 

Persian  Green.  This  is  only  another  name  for  emerald 
green,  the  vivid  and  somewhat  staring  hue  being  sometimes 
employed  in  oriental  decorations  and  being  then  termed  Per- 
sian green. 

Pistache.  This  is  a  yellowish  green  shade.  It  may  be  ob- 
tained by  mixing  seven  parts  of  black,  one  of  yellow  ochre 
and  one  and  half  of  chrome  green.  Or  chrome  yellow  may, 
if  desired,  be  substituted  for  the  ochre. 

Prussian  Green.  To  produce  this,  mix  five  parts  black, 
three  parts  chrome  yellow  and  twelve  parts  emerald  or  me- 
dium chrome  green. 

Quaker  Green.  Mix  equal  proportions  of  Venetian  red 
and  medium  chrome  j'ellow  and  add  blue  black.  Add  to 
this  mixture  a  quantitj'  of  chrome  green  equal  in  bulk  to 
the  three.    This  will  give  an  excellent  quaker  green. 

Reed  Green.  Mix  white,  chrome  yellow  and  chrome  green 
in  about  equal  quantities  to  produce  this  shade.  The  name, 
however,  has  no  special  significance,  and  an  admixture  of 
almost  any  yellow  and  green,  lightened  up  with  white,  might 
be  used  instead. 

Sage  Green.  This  maj'  be  produced  by  tinting  white  lead 
with  four  parts  of  light  chrome  green  and  one  part  of  ivory 
black,  or  the  white  lead  may  be  tinted  with  a  mixture  of 
French  ochre,  lamp  black,  and  Prussian  blue.     Another  re- 


100  CYCLOPEDLV   OF   PAINTING 

cipe  is  as  follows:  Add  raw  umber  and  chrome  green  in 
the  proportion  of  about  one  part  of  the  former  to  two  parts 
of  the  latter  added  to  white  lead  until  the  desired  shade  is 
obtained,  A  pale  Brunswick  green  and  a  very  little  black 
used  to  tint  white  also  gives  a  good  sage  green. 

Sap  Green.  Mix  with  white  lead,  medium  chrome  yellow 
and  a  very  little  lamp  black. 

Sea  Foam.  Tint  white  lead  with  medium  chrome  yellow 
and  emerald  green,  or  if  too  bright,  use  medium  chrome 
green  instead  of  the   emerald. 

Sea  Green.  This  color  is  obtained  by  adding  deep  chrome 
to  white  lead.  Another  sea  green,  and  a  very  good  one,  is 
obtained  by  mixing  light  Brunswick  green,  raw  sienna  or 
ochre   and  white. 

Seered  Green.  Tint  white  lead  with  French  ochre,  medium 
chrome  j'ellow  and  a  little  bright  green. 

Starling's  Egg  Green.  A  mixture  of  light  chrome  and 
Prussian  blue,  lightened  up  with  white,  will  produce  this 
color. 

Tea  Green.  Medium  royal  green,  chrome  j'ellow  and  lamp 
black  added  to  white  lead  will  give  this  color. 

Velvet  Green.  Mix  three  parts  of  burnt  sienna,  five  parts 
of  light  chrome  green  and  eight  parts  white  lead. 

Venetian  Green.  Lighten  up  dark  chrome  gi'een  with 
white  lead. 

Water  Green.  Raw  sienna  mixed  with  a  little  deep 
chrome  green  and  added  to  white  lead  gives  a  water  green 
tint. 

Willow  Green.  Tint  white  lead  with  medium  chrome 
green,  and  add  a  little  burnt  umber  or  ivory  black. 

JAPANS. 

Rich  Dark  Red.     Mix  Indian  red  with  a  little  black  Japan. 

Rich  Dark   Brown,      Mix   crimson   lake   and   bh\ck   Japan, 

varying  the  amount  of  each  according  to  the  depth  required. 

Chocolate  Brown.     Mix  orange  chrome  with  black  Japan. 


COLOR   MIXIJNG  101 

Leather  Color.  This  is  obtained  in  exactly  the  same  way 
as  chocolate  brown  excepting  that  rather  more  chrome  is 
used. 

Bottle  Green.  Mix  together  Prussian  blue,  Dutch  pink  and 
black  Japan. 

Invisible  Green.  Use  the  same  mixture  as  for  bottle  green 
but  use  less  Japan. 

Light  and  Dark  Reds.  A  series  to  which  there  is  no  end, 
may  be  obtained  by  mixing  either  vermilion  or  vermilionette 
with  black  Japan  in  varying  proportions. 

Neutral  Green.  This  is  produced  by  adding  lemon  chrome 
to  a  little  black  Japan. 

REDS. 

Acacia.  This  may  be  described  as  a  dark  maroon.  It  is 
made  by  mixing  five  parts  of  black,  three  of  Indian  red  and 
one  of  Prussian  blue.  Less  of  the  black  will  give  a  more 
pleasing  shade. 

Amaranthine.  This  is  a  crimson  which  can  be  made  by 
mixing  three  parts  of  vermilionette  with  one  of  Prussian 
blue. 

Anemone.  This  is  a  reddish  purple,  and  may  be  made 
by  mixing  two  parts  of  black,  one  of  white,  six  of  a  bright 
red,  and  six  of  Prussian  blue. 

Apricot.  Mix  middle  chrome  yellow  with  a  little  vermilion 
and  add  a  very  little  lake. 

Armenian  Red.  Mix  one  part  of  yellow  ochre  with  two 
parts  of  Venetian  red. 

Aurore.  A  dull  pink  shade,  which  can  be  produced  as 
follows :  Mix  together  one  part  of  Indian  red,  two  of 
orange  chrome,  a  little  lemon  chrome,  and  two  of  blue,  light- 
ening up  with  white. 

Bay.  Mix  together  five  parts  of  black,  three  of  Venetian 
red,  and  a  little  orange  chrome. 

Begonia.     A  dark  red  purple,  which  may  be  obtained  by 


102  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

mixino:  six  parts  of  lamp  black,  five  of  bright  red,  and  four 
of  Prussian  blue. 

Black  Maroon.  Take  eight  parts  of  black  and  mix  them 
with  one  of  a  bright  red  and  a  little  Prussian  blue. 

Blood  Red.  Any  bright  red  toned  down  with  a  little 
black  will  produce  a  shade  sometimes  called  by  this  name. 

Bordeaux  Red.  Take  nine  parts  of  black  and  mix  with 
it  two  parts  of  orange  chrome  and  one  of  Prussian  blue. 

Brick.  Use  two  parts  of  French  ochre  to  one  part  of 
Venetian  red  and  one  part  of  white  lead,  adding  more  ochre 
if  required  to  lighten  the  color.  This  gives  a  good  tint, 
sometimes  called  brick  red,  and  is  suitable  for  outside  work. 

Bright  Scarlet.  Mix  twenty  parts  of  vermilion,  seven 
parts  of  pale  chrome,  and  one  part  of  golden  ochre.  A  good 
vermilionette  slightly  toned  down  with  yellow  answers  the 
same  purpose. 

Bronze  Red.  This  is  a  red  toned  down  with  about  a 
fourth  part  of  black,  a  little  bright  yellow  or  orange  being 
added. 

Cambridge  Red.  Vermilion,  to  which  is  added  about  one 
twentieth  part  of  Prussian  blue,  gives  a  color  called  Cam- 
bridge red. 

Carmine.  This  is  an  artist's  color,  its  rich  red  tint  can 
hardly  be  imitated.  A  light  vermilionette  of  good  grade,  to 
which  is  added  a  little  bright  yellow,  may  be  used. 

Carnation  Red.  Three  parts  of  carmine  lake  and  one 
part  of  white  lead  give  a  carnation  color,  but  a  better  result 
is  obtained  by  taking  pure  vermilion  as  a  base  and  adding 
carmine  and  zinc  white  until  the  desired  rich  color  is  ob- 
tained.   This  color  is  not  suitable  for  use  outside. 

Carnation  Rose.  White  lead  tinted  with  Indian  red  or 
vermilioM,  or  one  of  the  fast  reds.  A  beautiful  color  can 
be  obtained  by  simply  tinting  white  with  permanent  crim- 
son madder. 


COLOR   MIXING  103 

Cherry  Red.  Mix  together  crimson  lake,  burnt  sienna  and 
azure  blue,  or  two  parts  of  vermilion  and  one  part  of  car- 
mine. 

Claret.  Mis  two  parts  of  carmine  with  one  of  ultramarine 
blue.  A  little  vermilion  may  be  added  if  desired,  and  this 
may  render  a  little  yellow  necessary  to  tone  down  the  color. 
A  less  rich  color  may  be  made  by  mixing  Venetian  red  and 
yellow  ochre. 

Coral  Pink.  This  color  is  useful  only  on  inside  work.  It 
is  made  by  mixing  five  parts  of  vermilion,  two  parts  of 
white  lead  and  one  part  of  chrome  yellow.  Another  recipe 
for  producing  shades  of  coral  pink  is :  one  part  of  white, 
three  of  red,  five  of  orange,  and  three  of  blue. 

Dregs  of  Wine.  This  shade  is  produced  by  mixing  Vene- 
tian red  with  a  little  lamp  black  and  white  lead* 

Egyptian.  A  dull  yellowish  crimson  made  by  using  five 
parts  of  black,  one  and  half  of  white,  two  of  orange,  and 
one  of  blue,  and  a  very  little  red. 

Firefly.  A  dull  orange  red  produced  by  mixing  two  parts 
of  black,  three  of  red,  one  of  orange,  and  a  little  yellow. 

Flesh  Color.  One  hundred  and  twenty  parts  white  lead, 
two  parts  yellow  ochre,  and  one  part  Venetian  red  will  pro- 
duce an  excellent  flesh  color.  Or  mix  eight  parts  of  white 
lead,  two  parts  of  orange  chrome  yellow,  and  one  part  of 
light  Venetian  red.  An  increased  proportion  of  red  may  be 
employed  where  desired.  A  mixture  of  orange  and  white  in 
the  proportion  of  one  part  of  the  former  to  three  parts  of  the 
latter  may  also  be  used,  or  a  mixture  of  medium  chrome  yel- 
low, ochre,  and  Venetian  red  added  to  white. 

French  Red.  Use  equal  parts  of  Indian  red  and  vermilion, 
and  glaze  with  carmine  or  permanent  crimson  madder. 

Gazelle.  To  obtain  this  mix  Venetian  red,  lamp  black  and 
Indian  red,  and  add  sufficient  white  lead  to  produce  the  de- 
sired shade. 

Geranium.  To  produce  this  color  use  nine  parts  of  bright 
red  and  one  of  blue.    Or  Indian  red  may  be  used,  afterwards 


104  CYCLOPEDIA   OF    PAINTING 

glazing  with  madder  lake  foi-  good  work.  Most  of  the  lar- 
ger color  manufacturers  make  geranium  red  which  is  better 
than  can  be  obtained  by  mixing. 

Indian  Pink.     Tint  white  lead  with  a  little  Indian  red. 

Indian  Red.  This  is  a  good  permanent  pigment  to  be 
fcought  ready  made,  and  is  most  useful  in  mixing  with  other 
colors. 

Light  Pink.  Tint  white  lead  with  a  little  pure  vermilion. 
The  word  pink  does  not  bear  any  very  definite  meaning,  as 
almost  any  bright  red  such  as  carmine  or  crimson  added  to 
plenty  of  white  give  a  good  pink  just  as  vermilion  does,  but 
of  another  hue.  A  very  pretty  and  useful  pink  is  made  by 
adding  white  to  permanent  crimson  madder. 

Light  Salmon.  Tint  white  lead  with  raw  Italian  sienna, 
burnt  Italian  sienna,  and  burnt  Turkey  umber.  Or  tint  white 
with  any  bright  red,  toning  down  with  sienna. 

Lilac.  A  great  deal  of  difference  of  opinion  exists  as  to 
this  tint.  One  part  of  ultramarine  to  one  part  of  bright 
carmine,  added  to  eighty  parts  white  lead,  give  a  very  good 
lilac.  A  cheaper  way  is  to  use  Indian  red  and  lamp  black 
as  a  tinting  color,  or  rose  pink  may  be  added  to  the  lead 
only.  Yet  another  method  for  producing  a  lilac  is  to  mix 
three  parts  of  bright  Indian  red,  three  parts  of  white  lead, 
and  one  part  of  ultramarine  blue,  but  less  white  lead  is  pre- 
ferred by  some  painters.  A  touch  of  yellow  will  help  this 
color  if  too  raw  for  the  purpose. 

Madder  Lake.  This  is  principally  used  by  artists,  but  it 
is  useful  to  the  house  decorator  for  glazing  the  best  work 
where  a  bright  red  is  required. 

Magenta.  Carmine  and  vermilion,  with  a  little  ultrama- 
rine blue,  produce  this  color. 

Maroon.  This  color  is  obtained  by  mixing  carmine  and 
blue  black,  and  adding  a  small  quantity  of  medium  chrome 
yellow.  It  may  also  be  made  by  mixing  one  part  of  ultra- 
marine blue  with  three  parts  of  Tuscan  red.  This  gives  a 
tint  that  is  often  considered  a  little  too  red,  but  this  defect 


COLOR  MIXING  105 

may  easily  be  remedied  by  adding  more  blue.  Some  paint- 
ers add  ivory  black  and  a  little  chrome  yellow  to  carmine. 

Mexican  Red.  Mix  one  part  of  red  lead  with  four  parts 
of  Venetian  red. 

Mikado.  Three  parts  of  blue  and  seven  of  red,  mixed 
with  a  little  white,  give  this  purplish  red  shade. 

Moorish  Red.  Mix  together  three  parts  of  vermilion  and 
one  part  of  rose  pink. 

Mulberry.  This  is  a  very  dark  purple  obtained  by  adding 
a  little  blue  and  just  a  tinge  of  red  to  black. 

Old  Rose.  Tint  white  lead  with  French  ochre,  Indian  red 
and  lamp  black,  or  Venetian  red  and  a  very  little  lamp  black 
may  be  used  if  desired. 

Opaque  Pink.     Tint  white  lead  with  red  lead. 

Opera  Pink.  Tint  white  lead  with  a  mixture  of  five  parts 
of  vermilion  and  one  part  of  medium  chrome  green. 

Oriental  Red.  Mix  one  part  of  red  lead  with  two  parts 
of  Indian  red. 

Orange  Scarlet.  This  color  may  be  obtained  by  adding 
two  parts  of  orange  lead  to  one  part  of  white  lead. 

Orange  Vermilion.  Orange  lead  comes  nearest  to  this 
color.  The  tone  may  be  made  by  adding  chrome  to  vermil- 
ion. 

Peach  Bloom.  This  is  a  mixture  of  white  lead  and  Vene- 
tian red.  Or  it  may  be  produced  by  adding  sufficient  In- 
dian red  to  white  lead  to  give  a  warm  tint  and  mixing  it 
with  equal  proportions  of  white  lead,  lemon  chrome  yellow, 
ultramarine  blue  and  light  Indian  red.  Or  a  mixture  of 
three  parts  of  Indian  red  with  seventeen  parts  of  white  is 
sometimes  used. 

Pink.  White  lead  tinted  with  orange  lead  gives  a  bright 
pink. 

Plum.  Mix  with  equal  parts  of  white  lead.  Indian  red 
and  ultramarine  blue  in  the  proportion  of  two  parts  of 
lead  to  one  of  each  of  the  other  colors.  This  makes  a 
dark  plum  that  is  only  suitable  for  inside  work.     If  a  light 


106  CYCLOPEDIA   OP   PAINTING 

tint  is  desired  add  more  white  lead.  A  very  rich  plum 
may  be  obtained  by  mixing  tog-ether  ultramarine  blue  and 
carmine,  and  adding  a  little  white  and  a  little  jellow. 

Pompeian  Red.  Small  quantities  of  bright  red  and  orange 
are   mixed   with  black  to  produce  this  shade. 

Poppy.  Blue  and  vermilion  mixed  in  the  proportion  of 
one  of  the  former  to  twenty-four  of  the  latter  give  this 
shade.  Some  color  mixers  prefer  to  add  a  bright  yellow 
instead  of  the  blue. 

Purple.  Light  Indian  red,  four  parts;  white  lead,  three 
parts;  ultramarine,  blue,  two  parts;  or  a  purple  may  be  ob- 
tained by  mixing  Indian  red  and  white.  A  mixture  pre- 
ferred by  some  painters  is  made  by  mixing  ultramarine  and 
vermilion  with  a  little  white.  A  little  crimson  lake  gives 
richness   to   the   color. 

Red  Ochre.  This  earth  color  is  cheap,  and  can  be  readily 
bought  in  most  places.  It  can  be  imitated  by  mixing  In- 
dian red  and  chrome  and  adding  a  little  vermilion. 

Red  Terra  Gotta.  Use  equal  proportions  of  burnt  sienna 
and  white  lead.  The  tone  may  be  varied  by  the  addition 
of  either  of  the  umbei's  and  the  chromes.  A  good  bright 
terra  cotta  is  also  made  by  using  Venetian  red  as  a  base 
and  coloring  up  with  ochre  and  a  touch  of  lake. 

Regal  Purple.  Mix  together  four  parts  of  white  lead, 
two  parts  of  cobalt  blue  and  one  part  of  carmine  lake. 

Roan.  Mix  black  with  half  its  quantity  of  red  and  add 
a  very  small  proportion  of  blue  and  white. 

Rose.  Five  parts  of  white  lead  mixed  with  two  parts  of 
carmine  give  a  rose  color  that  is  suitable  for  inside  work 
only.  An  admirable  rose  color  may  be  obtained  by  using 
zinc  white  instead  of  white  lead,  as  the  zinc  is  a  much 
purer  white  than  the  lead,  and  hence  gives  a  purer  tint. 

Rose  Carnation.  Mix  together  one  part  of  rose  madder 
and  eight  parts  of  oxide  of  zinc.  This  is  a  beautiful  color, 
but  the  madder  is  too  expensive  for  use  except  by  artists. 


COLOR   MIXING  107 

A  very  successful  color  can  be  produced  from  permanent 
crimson  madder. 

Rose  Wood.  To  produce  this  color,  red  is  mixed  with 
about  twelve  times  the  quantity  of  black  and  a  very  little 
green.     The  shade  given  is  a  very  dark  red. 

Royal  Pink.  Mix  together  two  parts  of  zinc  white  and 
carmine  lake.     This  will  only  do  for  inside  work. 

Royal  Purple.  Mix  one  part  of  vegetable  black,  one  and 
one-half  of  rich  red,  and  seven  of  Prussian  blue. 

Salmon.  Six  parts  of  white  lead,  one  part  of  vermilion, 
and  a  little  lemon  chrome  yellow.  This  mixture  produces 
a  color  somewhat  bright.  Another  salmon  color  is  made 
by  a  mixture  of  raw  sienna,  burnt  sienna  and  burnt  umber. 
A  tint  preferred  by  some  is  produced  by  adding  to  the 
white,  Venetian  red,  burnt  umber  and  French  ochre.  An- 
other method  is  to  add  vermilion  and  golden  ochre  to  white, 
which  gives  a  nice  bright  color.  Venetian  red  and  chrome, 
added  to  white,  gives  a  duller  color.  Still  another  mix- 
ture is  Venetian  red,  vermilion,  yellow  ochre   and  white. 

Scarlet  Lake.  A  color  very  similar  may  be  obtained  in 
one  of  the  many  vermilionettes  on  the  market.  It  will  be 
convenient  to  remember  that  all  vermilions  are  lightened 
by  the  use  of  pale  chrome  instead  of  white  lead.  Lead 
takes  down  the  brilliancy  of  the  color,  producing  a  pink. 

Scarlet  Red.  It  is  the  name  given  to  the  brightest  of  the 
oxide  paints. 

Shell  Pink.  This  color  is  sometimes  made  by  adding  a 
little  good  Indian  red  to  white,  but  some  decorators  prefer 
to  use  vermilion  with  a  little  chrome  yellow  and  burnt 
sienna. 

Shrimp  Pink.  Mix  Venetian  red,  burnt  sienna  and  white 
lead,  and  add  a  little  vermilion. 

Signal  Red.  This  is  usually  made  by  mixing  orange 
lead,  vermilionette  and  Paris  white,  or  orange  lead  by  itself 
may  be  tinted  with  vermilionette. 


108  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

Salmon  Pink.  Tint  white  lead  with  equal  parts  of  orange 
chrome  and  v«rmiIion.  If  zinc  white  is  used  instead  of 
lead  the  color  will  be  found  brighter. 

Terra  Cotta.  Mix  together  two  parts  of  white  lead  and 
one  part  of  burnt  sienna.  One  of  the  best  ways  to  produce 
a  good  terra  cotta  wall  is  to  give  a  good  under  coat  of 
white  lead,  orange  chrome  and  a  little  Venetian  red,  and 
when  dry  to  apply  a  finished  coat  made  from  Venetian  red 
and  a  little  orange  chrome  to  which  has  been  added  a  little 
white, 

Turkish  Crescent  Red.  Mix  equal  proportions  of  Indian 
red,   vermilionette   and   rose   pink. 

Tuscan  Red.  This  can  be  bought  ready  made,  and  may 
be  imitated  by  mixing  ten  parts  of  Indian  red  with  one 
part  rose  pink.  Indian  red  is  very  similar  in  color  but 
somewhat  darker. 

Venetian  Pink.  Tint  white  lead  with  a  little  Venetian 
red. 

Venetian  Red.  This  color  is  one  of  the  most  useful  that 
the  house  painter  has,  being  cheap,  and  having  good  cover- 
ing power  and  body.  It  is  not  very  good  for  tinting  pur- 
poses. It  would  not,  of  course,  be  often  imitated,  but  In- 
dian red — a  very  similar  pigment — could  be  tinted  with 
red.  Or  it  may  be  imitated  by  mixing  vermilion,  yellow 
ochre,  madder,  carmine  and  a  little  Cappagh  broAvn,  which 
is  an  artist's  color  and  is  rarely  used  by  house  painters. 

Vermilion.  This  bright  red  cannot  be  imitated  by  an 
admixture  of  ordinary  pigments,  but  there  are  many  excel- 
lent substitutes  on  the  market,  most  of  them  being  vermil- 
ionettes. 

Wine  Color.  Add  a  little  ivory  black  to  a  mixture  of  car- 
mine and  vermilion. 

WHITES. 

A  very  little  ultramarine  green  added  to  white  lead  makes 
a  white  sometimes  called  Japan  white. 

Equal  parts  of  white  lead  and  oxide  of  zinc  are  frequent- 


COLOR  MIXING  lOd 

ly  used  as  a  white  paint,  although  two  parts  of  lead  to  one 
of  zinc  gives  a  better  mixture. 

Some  painters  are  under  the  impression  that  inasmuch 
as  lead  and  zinc  are  both  derived  from  metals  they  will 
not  mix  together  to  form  a  good  paint,  there  being  some- 
thing of  the  nature  of  a  galvanic  action  set  up  between  the 
two  metals.  This,  however,  is  an  error,  for  although  lead 
and  zinc  cannot  properly  be  mixed  together  by  hand,  yet 
if  they  are  ground  by  the  ordinary  paint  manufacturers' 
machinery  the  result  is  a  most  durable  paint. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  mixture  of 
lead  and  zinc  is  a  good  policy  to  follow.  Many  painters 
get  excellent  results  by  using  white  lead  for  the  under 
coats  and  zinc  white  for  the  final  coats. 

Commercial  White.  Seventeen  parts  of  white  lead,  three 
parts  of  barytes.  This  is  intended  to  be  mixed  in  oil,  not 
water. 

Permanent  White.  The  best  quality  barytes  or  blane 
fixe  makes  a  permanent  white  when  ground  in  water.  In 
oil  it  lacks  body.  For  many  purposes  a  white  which  will 
last  a  considerable  length  of  time  is  made  by  mixing  two 
parts  of  zinc  white  with  one  part  of  barytes. 

YELLOWS. 

If  a  yellow  is  too  bright  it  may  be  lowered  by  adding  a 
small  quantity  of  blue  and  red.  Instructions  for  obtaining 
the  various  grades  of  yellow  are  given  explicitly  herewith. 

Alabaster.  This  is  yellowish  white  in  color.  Mix  four 
parts  of  white  with  one  of  middle  chrome  yellow. 

Amber.  An  imitation  of  amber  can  be  produced  by  mix- 
ing equal  portions  of  burnt  sienna,  burnt  umber,  blue  black 
and  orange  chrome  yellow,  and  adding  a  quantity  of  white 
lead   until   the   desired   tint  is  obtained. 

Antique  Bronze.  Add  ivory  black  to  orange  chrome  yel- 
low in  the  proportion  of  about  five  parts  of  black  and  one 
part  of  orange. 


110  CYCLOt»EDU   OF   PAINTING 

Asiatic  Bronze.  One  part  medium  chrome  yellow,  two 
parts  raw  umber,  and  lighten  with  white  lead. 

Brass  Yellow.  This  may  be  obtained  by  mixing  forty 
parts  of  white  lead,  twelve  parts  of  light  chrome  yellow, 
one  part  raw  umber,  and  one  part  burnt  umber.  Or  a  mix- 
ture of  French  ochre  and  medium  chrome  yellow,  added  to 
a  little  umber,  with  a  touch  of  blue,  may  be  used  to  tint 
white  as  a  base. 

Bronze.  Take  fourteen  parts  of  black  and  add  one  part 
of  yellow  and  two  of  green. 

Bronze  Yellow.  Mix  together  five  parts  of  medium 
chrome  yellow,  three  parts  of  white  lead,  and  one  part 
of  raw  umber.  A  mixture  preferred  by  some  painters  is 
obtained  from  chrome  yellow,  French  ochre  and  a  little 
burnt  umber. 

Buff.  Two  parts  of  white  lead  and  one  part  of  yellow 
ochre  produces  a  good  buff,  or  white  lead  may  be  tinted 
with  French  ochre  alone.  Other  shades  are  obtained  with 
mixtures  of  two  parts  of  black,  four  of  white,  one  of  red 
and  one  and  one-eighth  of  yellow. 

Buttercup.  White  lead  tinted  with  lemon  chrome  gives 
a  nice  buttercup  yellow. 

Cadmium  Orange.  This  is  an  artist's  color  of  consider- 
able value,  but  is,  generally  speaking,  too  expensive  for 
house  painters.  It  should  not  be  mixed  with  chrome  yel- 
low or  emerald  green.  It  is  made  in  three  shades:  pale, 
medium  and  deep,  and  it  cannot  be  successfully  imitated. 

Canary.  This  is  practically  another  name  for  straw  tint, 
and  it  may  be  mixed  in  the  same  way.  The  proportions  for 
an  ordinary  shade  of  canary  are  three  parts  of  lemon 
chrome  yellow  to  one  part  of  white  lead,  but  less  yellow  is 
often  preferred.  Another  shade  is  obtained  by  mixing  two 
parts  of  white,  six  of  yellow  and  two  of  green.  Some  manu- 
facturers make  an  extra  light  chrome  yellow  which  they  call 
by  this  name. 


COLOR    MIXING  111 

Chamois.  A  dull  yellow  made  by  mixing  four  parts  of 
white,  five  of  yellow  ochre  and  one  of  green. 

Chamoline.  Mix  together  five  parts  of  white  lead,  three 
parts  of  raw  sienna  and  one  part  of  lemon  yellow. 

Citrine.  Although  this  is  a  tertiary  color,  and  theoretical- 
ly can  be  made  from  green  and  orange,  opinions  as  to  the 
exact  shade  somewhat  differ.  It  may  be  made  by  mixing- 
four  parts  of  medium  chrome  yellow  and  one  part  of  raw 
umber;  or  five  parts  of  lemon  chrome  yellow  and  two  parts 
of  raw  umber. 

Citron.  To  produce  this  color  use  Venetian  red  as  a  base 
and  add  one  part  of  Prussian  blue,  two  of  chrome  yellow 
and  two  of  white. 

Colonial  Yellow.  Medium  chrome  yellow  mixed  with  white 
lead  and  a  little  dark  orange  chrome  yellow  gives  this  tint. 

Cream.  A  good  shade  is  obtained  by  mixing  eight  parts 
of  white  lead,  two  parts  of  French  yellow  ochre  and  a  touch 
of  Venetian  red.  French  ochre  and  lead  alone  are  often  em- 
ployed. Equal  parts  of  raw  sienna  and  orange  chrome  used 
to  tint  white  gives  a  nice  cream.  There  are  many  other 
methods  of  obtaining  this  tint. 

Daffodil.  Lemon  chrome  mixed  with  a  little  Venetian  red 
will  give  this  color. 

Deep  Cream.  This  color  is  made  by  tinting  white  lead 
with  yellow  ochre  and  a  little  Venetian  red. 

Ecru.  Tint  white  lead  with  French  ochre  and  medium 
chrome  yellow.  A  tint  which  is  sometimes  called  stone 
color  is  produced  in  the  same  way.  Another  shade  of  ecru 
may  be  obtained  by  mixing  three  parts  of  black,  eight  parts 
of  white,  three  of  medium  chrome  yellow  and  one  of  Bruns- 
wick green. 

Jonquil  Yellow.  Tint  white  lead  with  medium  chrome  yel- 
low to  which  has  been  added  a  very  little  vermilion  red. 
One  of  the  favorite  methods  is  to  employ  sixteen  parts  white 
lead,  one  part  of  indigo  and  two  parts  of  light  red,  adding  as 
much  chrome  yellow  as  may  be  desired.     Another  way  of 


112  CYCLOPEDIA  OF   PAINTING 

making  jonquil  yellow  is  by  simply  mixing  with  a  little  green 
about  forty  times  the  quantity  of  yellow. 

Gamboge.  This  is  an  artist's  color.  It  is  a  gum  resin, 
is  somewhat  fugitive,  and  is  useless  for  the  purpose  of  the 
house  painter. 

Gold.  To  obtain  the  color  known  as  gold,  white  lead  may 
be  tinted  with  five  parts  of  golden  or  yellow  ochre  and  one 
part  of  vermilion,  or  a  mixture  of  light  chrome  j-ellow. 
French  ochre  and  vermilion  maj^  be  used  instead  to  tint 
the  white  lead.  The  quantitj-  of  yellow  used  should  be  con- 
siderably more  than  the  ochre. 

Hay  Color.  French  ochre,  medium  chrome  yellow  and 
lamp  black  used  as  tinting  color  for  white  lead  will  give  a 
hay  color,  or  raw  Italian  sienna  and  lamp  black  may  be  em- 
ployed if  desired. 

Ivory.  The  addition  of  a  very  little  medium  chrome  yel- 
low to  white  lead  produces  this  tint,  or  a  very  little  golden 
ochre  may  be  used.  Another  way  is  to  tint  white  very  slight- 
ly with  middle  chrome  and  a  touch  of  black. 

Leghorn.  This  is  a  pale  yellow  shade,  which  is  obtained 
by  mixing  white  and  medium  chrome  yellow  in  about  equal 
proportions. 

Lemon.  For  this  color,  lemon  chrome  yellow  is  used  alone,, 
but  the  tint  may  be  made  by  using  white  lead  for  a  base  and 
adding  medium  chrome  yellow  until  the  desii-ed  tint  is  ob- 
tained. The  tint  that  is  usually  preferred  is  obtained  by 
mixing  five  parts  of  chrome  to  two  parts  of  white  lead,  and 
adding  a  little  green.  However,  lemon  chrome  yellow  pur- 
chased ready  made  is  the  best. 

Light  Buff.  A  little  yellow  ochre  added  to  white  lead 
gives  a  good  buff  color,  the  tint  varying  with  the  quantity 
of  ochre. 

Light  Stone.  Tint  white  lead  with  French  ochre  and  lamp 
blafk. 

Lemon  Yellow.  This  is  also  called  lemon  chrome,  and  is 
the  palest  shade  of  lemon  chrome  yellow.     It  is  very  useful 


COLOR   MIXING  113 

foi-  preparing-  the  lighter  shades  of  yellow,  and  may  be 
imitated   by   adding   cadmium  yellow   to   zinc   white. 

Corn  Yellow.  Mix  yellow  and  white  in  the  proportion  of 
about  three  parts  of  the  former  to  one  of  the  latter  to  get 
this  liuht  yellow  shade. 

Manilla.  Is  made  by  tinting  white  lead  with  French 
ochre  and  chrome  yellow.  Or  a  mixture  of  white  with  four 
times  the  quantity  of  yellow  will  produce  a  shade  of  ma- 
nilla. 

Marigold.  This  is  obtained  by  mixing  a  very  little  bright 
yellow   with   orange   chrome. 

Melon.  Mix  equal  quantities  of  black  and  white.  Add 
twice  the  bulk  of  orange  chrome  and  a  quantity  of  medium 
chrome  equal  to  the  mixture  of  black  and  white. 

Mushroom.  A  dull  yellow  shade,  which  may  be  obtained 
by  adding  one  part  of  orange  and  two  of  yellow  to  ten 
parts  of  black. 

Middle  Stone.  Mix  as  described  under  Stone,  but  use 
more  umber  and  ochre. 

Naples  Yellow.  This  yellow  is  not  now  much  used,  chrome 
yellow  having  to  a  large  extent  taken  its  place.  It  may  be 
imitated  by  tinting  zinc  white  with  cadmium  yellow  and  a 
very  little  yellow  ochre. 

Naples  Yellow.  This  is  obtained  by  mixing  orange  with 
twice  as  much  yellow  and  three  times  as  much  white.  It 
is  also  the  name  given  to  an  artist's  color. 

Ochre  Yellow.  Mix  orange  and  yellow  in  about  equal 
proportions  with  a  rather  larger  quantity  of  black. 

Old  Gold.  Use  middle  chrome  with  a  little  vermilion  and 
burnt  sienna,  and  add  a  very  little  cobalt.  A  cheaper  color 
may  be  made  by  mixing  ochre  and  burnt  sienna.  One  part 
of  green  and  three  of  bright  yellow  mixed  Avith  a  little  white 
will  give  an  old  gold  shade.  Or  it  may  be  obtained  in  the  same 
way  as  gold,  but  a  little  burnt  umber  may  be  added.  Some 
painters  prefer  to  tint  white  lead  with  a  mixture  of  chrome, 


114  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

raw  sienna  and  vermilion.  White  tinted  with  a  little  orange 
chrome  and  burnt  umber  also  gives  a  good  old  gold  tint. 

Olive  Yellow.  This  color  is  sometimes  called  olive  brown. 
It  is  made  by  mixing  three  parts  of  burnt  umber  with  one 
part  of  lemon  chrome  yellow,  a  larger  quantity  of  yellow 
being  added  if  a  lighter  shade  is  required.  Another  method 
is  to  mix  ten  parts  of  black,  one  of  orange,  twelve  of  yel- 
low and  five  of  green. 

Orange.  Mix  white,  yellow  and  orange  in  the  following 
proportions:  One  part  each  of  yellow  and  white  and  eigh- 
teen parts  of  orange.  Or  another  shade  is  got  with  seven- 
teen parts  of  orange^  six  of  yellow  and  two  of  white.  Orange 
chrome  yellow  can  be  easily  purchased,  however,  and  gives 
this  color  without  any  admixture  being  necessary. 

Persian  Orange.  Mix  fourteen  parts  of  orange  chrome, 
five  parts  of  yellow  ochre  and  one  of  white. 

Pompeian  Yellow.  Tint  white  with  Italian  ochre  and  add 
a  very  little  ultramarine  and  vermilion. 

Portland  Stone.  Mix  equal  parts  of  yellow  ochre  and  raw 
umber  and  lighten  up  with  white  until  the  desired  tint  is 
obtained. 

Primrose  Yellow.  Lemon  chrome  used  by  itself  answers 
admirably. 

Primrose.  Ten  parts  of  white,  three  parts  of  green  and 
four  parts  of  yellow  will  give  this  light  greenish  yellow. 
Another  shade  is  got  by  mixing  one  part  of  orange,  two 
parts  of  green  and  five  parts  of  yellow. 

Spruce  Yellow.  Add  a  little  Venetian  red  to  a  mixture  of 
French  ochre  and  white  lead. 

Stone.  This  color,  so  much  used,  is  usually  made  by  mix- 
ing together  five  parts  of  white  lead,  two  parts  of  French 
yellow  ochre  and  one  part  of  burnt  umber.  By  adding  a 
little  raw  umber,  the  tint  may  be  varied  as  desired.  This 
color  is  suitable  for  outside  work.  Another  method  for  ob- 
taining the  shade  is  to  tint  white  with  medium  chrome  yel- 
low and  burnt  umber. 


COIX)R  MIXING  115 

Straw  Color.     Lemon  chrome  mixed  with  raw  umber. 

Straw.  White  lead  tinted  with  a  little  chrome  yellow  pro- 
duces an  excellent  straw  tint,  but  some  prefer  to  add  a 
little  French  ochre.  Or  medium  chrome  yellow  may  be  used 
as  a  base,  and  a  mixture  added  of  white,  French  ochre  and 
Venetian  red. 

Yellow  Lake.  This  is  a  somewhat  fugitive  color  which 
has  but  little  body,  but  is  useful  for  glazing.  To  imitate  it 
use  equal  parts  of  burnt  umber  and  white  lead  and  tint 
with  chrome  yellow  and  lake.  Or,  mix  umber  and  white  in 
equal  proportions  and  add  Naples  yellow  and  scarlet  lake. 
To  obtain  this  color  in  its  full  richness  it  is  quite  necessary 
to  glaze  either  admixture  with  yellow  lake. 

Yellow  Ochre.  The  ochres  are  natural  mineral  pigments, 
which  are  among  the  cheapest  and  most  useful  at  the  com- 
mand of  house  painters.  They  can  be  used  in  any  vehicle 
and  are  quite  permanent,  while  they  do  not  affect  any  other 
color  with  which  they  may  be  used. 

Zinc  Yellow.  This  is  a  chromate  of  zinc  which  is  quite 
fast  in  light,  and  possesses  the  advantage  of  permanence 
even  in  the  pi-esence  of  impure  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  It 
may  be  mixed  with  other  colors,  without  adversely  affecting 
Ihem. 


COLOR  TESTING. 

Although  to  accurately  test  the  quality  of  a  color  requires 
somewhat  elaborate  experiments,  both  chemical  and  prac- 
tical, yet  there  is  no  reason  why  the  painter  should  not  de- 
termine with  a  sufficient  degree  of  accuracy  for  his  purpose 
the  quality  of  the  color  he  uses.  Indeed,  if  this  was  done 
more  generally,  much  of  the  adulterated  trash  would  be 
driven  from  the  market,  and  none  would  rejoice  more  at 
such  a  result  than  the  color  manufacturers  themselves. 
The  manufacturers  assert  that  they  are  as  desirous  that  the 
trade  should  use  pure  colors  as  the  painters  can  possibly 
be.  Even  the  biggest  houses  produce  cheap  grades  of  colors, 
and  this  they  do,  as  a  rule,  almost  under  a  protest  and  sim- 
ply because  they  are  compelled  by  painters  demanding  colors 
for  certain  low  prices,  far  below  that  at  which  it  would  be 
possible  to  produce  the  pure  article.  Make  careful  com- 
parison between  pure  colors  and  those  being  used.  At  the 
same  time,  compare  the  prices  and  see  which  is  cheaper 
to  use.  If  even  they  come  out  at  the  same  price,  remember 
that  by  using  a  pure  color  all  the  benefit  of  the  purity  of 
tone  so  necessary  for  the  execution  of  good  work  is 
gained. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done .  in  testing  any  paint  material 
is  to  have  a  standard.  There  must  be  no  doubt  about  this. 
Unless  we  have  in  each  case  something  with  which  to  com- 
pare the  particular  sample  of  color  that  is  being  examined, 
we  shall  have  no  useful  information  concerning  it.  Take, 
therefore,  good  decorators'  colors  of  well  known  make.  If 
necessai-y  purchase  small  tubes  of  the  best  colors,  such  as 
are  put  up  for  artists'  use.  This  will  be  rather  a  severe 
trial,  but  still  it  will  afford  a  standard.  Having  such  sam- 
ples and  going  through  the  tests  we  are  about  to  describe, 

116 


COLOR  TESTING  117 

the  painter  can,  after  some  amount  of  trouble,  arrive  at  re- 
sults which  are  almost  as  accurate  as  those  which  could  be 
deduced  by  a  chemist.  An  expert  on  this  question  some  years 
ago  summarized  the  characteristics  of  colors  which  should 
be  considered  in  making  the  examination,  under  the  follow- 
ing heads: 

1.  Purity  of  the  material. 

2.  Purity  of  the  tone,  brilliancy;  richness,  which  indi- 
cates the  amount  of  care  in  selection. 

3.  Fineness  of  grinding  or  preparation ;  this  means  the 
degree  of  the  division  of  the  particles  and  upon  the  com- 
pleteness of  such  division  will  depend 

4.  Its  spreading  capacity. 

5.  Its  body.  This  applies,  of  course,  only  to  opaque  or 
semi-opaque  colors.  Body  is  opacity,  and  means  capacity  to 
conceal  the  surface  to  which  the  paint  is  applied,  and  must 
not  be  confused  with  spreading.     It  is  an  inherent  quality. 

6.  Its  staining  power  or  tinting  strength  with  white  or 
colors. 

7.  The  quality  of  purity  of  the  tint  with  white. 

8.  If  a  paste  color,  the  consistency  of  the  paste. 

9.  Transparency  of  transparent  colors  and  the  quality 
of  the  transparency. 

10.  The  permanency  of  the  color. 

It  will  be  observed  that  all  of  these  tests  will  not  neces- 
sarily be  applied  to  every  color.  For  instance,  a  transparent 
color  would  be  tested  for  its  transparency,  but  certainly  not 
for  its  body.    The  one  condition  is  the  converse  of  the  other. 

Purity  of  the  Material.  This  is  sometimes  of  considerable 
importance,  as  in  the  case  of  white  lead,  whilst  in  others, 
for  example  the  earth  colors,  it  can  hardly  be  said  that 
there  is  a  standard  of  purity.  As  a  rule  a  knowledge  of 
practical  chemistry  is  necessary  in  order  to  deteiToine  wheth- 
er a  sample  of  paint  or  color  is  pure  or  not. 

The  purity  of  white  lead,  however,  can  readily  be  ascer- 
tained by  the  painter  who  possesses  no  chemical  knowledge 


118  CYCLOPEDIA  OF   PAINTING 

by  aid  of  a  blow-pipe.  Take  a  piece  of  flat  charcoal  and 
cut  out  a  hollow  space  from  it  into  which  place  a  small  piece 
of  white  lead  to  be  tested,  about  the  size  of  a  pea.  Now 
direct  the  flame  of  a  blow-pipe  upon  it,  using  an  ordinary 
candle  or  a  Bunsen  burner,  taking  care  that  the  blue  por- 
tion of  the  flame  bears  upon  the  lead.  Keep  up  a  steady 
blow  for  a  few  minutes  and  the  white  lead  will  be  converted 
into  metallic  lead,  which  will  show  in  the  form  of  a  bright 
silver-like  button.  If  the  lead  is  adulterated  the  blowing 
will  only  have  the  result  of  making  it  appear  like  a  cinder. 
To  conduct  this  experiment  successfully  requires  a  little 
practice  with  the  blow-pipe  in  order  to  obtain  a  steady 
flame. 

Another  method  of  testing  is  to  place  a  little  white  lead 
in  a  crucible  and  place  this  on  a  hot  fire,  when,  if  genuine, 
it  will  be  converted  into  metallic  lead. 

Purity  of  Tone.  Some  remarks  on  this  subject  will  be 
given  under  the  heads  of  the  various  groups  of  colors.  Speak- 
ing generally,  the  richness  of  brilliancy  of  tone  is  easily  dis- 
cernible by  placing  the  sample  to  be  tested  side  by  side  with 
another  of  well  known  excellence.  In  siennas,  ochres  and 
umbers  the  selection  of  crude  material  by  which  the  rich- 
ness of  tone  is  assured  is  of  great  importance. 

Fineness  of  Grinding.  The  method  of  testing  the  fineness 
of  a  pigment  usually  employed  by  the  painter  is  to  rub 
a  little  on  the  finger  nail,  but  this  is  a  crude  and  unreliable 
method.  If  the  pigment  is  dry  and  it  is  desired  to  com- 
pare it  for  fineness  with  a  similar  pigment  or  white  lead, 
the  following  is  as  good  a  plan  as  any: 

Take  two  tall  vertical  glass  jars,  place  in  them  an  equal 
quantity  of  turpentine  and  then  take  a  small  quantity  of  the 
white  lead  to  be  tested.  Place  it  in  one  jar,  and  an  equal 
quantity  of  the  pigment  with  which  it  is  to  be  compared  in 
t'le  other;  thoroughly  stir  up  both  and  then  note  the  time 
it  takes  the  sample  to  settle.  If  graduated  marks  are  made 
to  the  two  jars  the  observations  will  be  taken  more  readily. 


COLOR  TESTING  119 

Another  test  is  to  weigh  out  equal  quantities  of  the  two 
leads,  and  then  to  take  a  very  small  quantity  of  the  same 
color,  say  black,  and  add  to  each  sample,  thoroughly  mix- 
ing. The  lead  that  is  the  lightest  in  color  will  be  the  finest. 
The  explanation  of  this  is  somewhat  interesting.  Suppose  that 
we  have  a  number  of  cubes  of  white  lead  each  measuring  one 
inch  side.  This  will  give  us  six  superficial  inches  to  be  col- 
ored. Now  suppose  that  we  break  up  these  inch  cubes  into 
half  inch  cubes,  which  Vv'ill  give  eight  half  inch  cubes  to 
each  inch  cube.  Now  as  each  half  inch  cube  has  six  faces 
measuring  half  an  inch  by  half  an  inch,  it  has  a  superficial 
surface  of  three  square  inches,  and  as  there  are  eight  of  the 
half  inch  cubes,  there  are  twenty-four  superficial  inches  to 
be  colored  against  six  in  the  inch  cubes.  It  will  be  seen, 
therefore,  that  by  increasing  the  fineness  of  a  pigment  a 
greater  surface  is  presented  to  be  colored,  and  hence  more 
color  is  required. 

Another  test  for  fineness  is  to  paint  different  samples 
thinned  in  turpentine  on  plate  glass;  when  dry  the  two 
specimens  may  be  compared  and  the  difference  of  fineness 
between  them  will  soon  be  apparent. 

Still  another  test,  and  one  frequently  used  by  painters, 
is  to  place  a  quantity  of  the  color  ground  in  oil  that  is  to 
be  tested  upon  a  level  surface  such  as  a  piece  of  glass,  and 
to  run  the  blade  of  a  spatula  or  palette  knife  over  it,  and 
then  over  another  sample  with  which  it  is  to  be  compared, 
noticing  carefully  the  difference  in  appearance  of  the  two 
samples.    By  these  means  the  presence  of  grit  is  discovered. 

Spreading  Capacity  or  Covering  Power.  The  spreading 
capacity  of  pigments  and  their  body  are  very  nearly  related, 
although  of  two  equal  in  body  one  ma}^  possess  greater  cov- 
ering power  or  spreading  capacity  than  the  other.  A  prac- 
tical method  of  testing  covering  power  is  to  mix  a  small 
quantity  of  a  standard  paint  and  an  exactly  similar  quan- 
tity of  the  pigment  to  be  tested,  taking  care  to  use  precise- 
ly the  same  amount  of  oil  and  thinners  in  each  case.    Then, 


120 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 


taking  a  clean  brush  for  each  of  the  paints,  paint  a  door,  or 
other  surface  that  has  been  primed,  on  two  panels  side  by 
side,  continuing  to  paint  till  all  the  pigment  has  been  in 
each  case  used  up.  The  one  that  goes  farthest  has  the  great- 
er covering  power. 

In  comparing  the  two  it  will  be  well  to  notice  whether 
the  body  is  equal  in  both  cases,  as  one  may  go  farther  but 
not  cover  so  well. 

Body.  The  word  body,  as  applied  to  pigments,  is  almost 
synonymous  with  opaqueness.  It  is  the  most  important 
property  of  a  pigment,  and  it  is  because  white  lead  pos- 
sesses the  quality  in  an  eminent  degree  that  it  is  so  much 
valued. 

Body  is  sometimes  called  covering  power,  but  this  term 
IS  a  little  misleading,  as  some  may  suppose  it  to  relate  to 
the  spreading  capacity  of  the  pigment. 

If  two  different  white  leads  ground  in  oil  to  an  equal 
consistency  are  applied  to  different  panels  of  a  door,  primed 
in  the  same  manner,  the  one  of  the  two  leads  that  possesses 
the  better  body  will  be  shown  by  it  hiding  the  grain  of  the 
wood  better.  Some  white  leads,  especially  those  that  are 
manufactured  by  the  new  processes,  lack  this  important 
quality  of  body,  and  three  coats  will  only  cover  the  work  as 
well  as  about  two  of  old  process  white  lead. 

There  are  numbers  of  methods  of  practically  testing  the 
body  of  pigments,  among  the  simplest  being  the  following: 

Prime  and  paint  a  board  with  alternate  black  and  whi'te 
squares,  like  a  chess  or  draughtboard.  Take  a  sample  of 
a  pigment,  similar  to  that  to  be  tested,  of  which  the  body 
is  known  to  be  good,  and  paint  a  wide  sdip  across  the  chess 
board;  then  paint  a  smaller  strip  of  the  pigment  to  be 
tested.  When  both  strips  are  dry,  by  comparing  them  one 
can  tell  almost  at  a  glance  which  has  the  better  body,  the 
superior  pigment  covering  or  hiding  the  black  squares' bet- 
ter than  the  other.  A  second  coat  may  afterward  be  ap- 
plied to  each  over  a  portion  of  the  strip,  if  desired. 


COLOR  TESTING  121 

It  is  important  to  notice  that  in  all  cases  of  practically 
testing  paints  the  results  are  obtained  by  comparisons  be- 
ing made,  and  hence  it  is  necessary  in  every  case  to  have  a 
standard  with  which  to  compare  the  sample  to  be  tested  as 
has  ah'eady  been  explained. 

The  test  of  painting  over  squares  of  black  and  white 
may  be  varied  by  using  stripes  instead.  The  test  answers 
equally  well  for  white  lead,  zinc  or  any  color  of  which  the 
quality  of  body  is  of  importance.  In  some  colors  it  is  of 
little  'moment. 

Tinting  or  Staining  Strength.  Any  painter  can  test  the 
tinting  sti'ength  of  any  color  himself  in  a  very  simple  man- 
ner. All  that  is  necessary  is  to  have  a  pair  of  druggists' 
scales,  some  blotting  paper,  a  palette  knife,  some  pieces  of 
glass  or  a  flat  piece  of  marble  and  some  pieces  of  waxed 
paper.  First  weigh  out  say  eighty  grains  of  dry  white 
lead  or  dry  zinc.  Any  other  white  will  answer  equally 
well.  Place  these  eighty  grains  on  one  side  of  the  glass  and 
the  second  eighty  grains  on  the  other.  Now  take  the  dry 
color  and  weigh  one  grain  and  add  that  to  one  of  the  little 
piles  of  white,  then  weigh  a  grain  of  the  standard  color 
and  add  that  to  the  other  pile.  Now  add  to  each  pile  a 
few  drops  of  oil,  taking  care  that  the  number  of  drops  is 
the  same  in  each  case.  With  the  palette  knife  thoi'oughly 
mix  until  no  streaks  can  be  seen  and  the  mixture  is  per- 
fectly uniform.  Then  by  comparing  the  two  the  differ- 
ence in  tinting  strength  will  at  once  be  apparent.  The 
same  result  would  have  been  produced  had  ordinary  white 
lead  ground  in  oil  been  used  instead  of  dry  lead  or  zinc.  If 
the  color  is  ground  in  oil  a  little  difference  in  the  method 
must  be  observed,  the  reason  being  that  one  color  might 
be  ground  much  thinner  than  the  other,  in  other  words 
might  contain  much  more  oil  than  the  other,  and  hence 
if  equal  weights  of  each  were  compared  the  result  would 
be  misleading.  Take  then  each  color  in  oil,  that  is  the 
standard   and  the   color  with  which  it   is  to  be   compared, 


12^  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

place  on  a  small  quantity  of  blotting  papei'  anj  allow  it  to 
remain  a  few  minutes  so  that  the  oil  may  be  extracted.  If 
it  is  thought  necessary  the  sample  can  be  washed  with  ben- 
zine, but  for  painters'  purposes  the  extraction  of  the  oil 
by  means  of  blotting  paper  is  sufficient  for  the  purpose. 
The  two  samples  having  remained  on  the  blotting  paper 
for  a  short  time  one  grain  of  each  is  weighed  out  sepa- 
rately on  little  pieces  of  wax  paper,  this  being  used  so  that 
the  color  shall  not  stick  to  the  scale.  Then  each  grain  is 
mixed  separately  with  the  white  and  the  result  compared 
as  before.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  every  painter 
should  be  prepared  to  make  this  test,  because  it  infor.iis 
him  not  only  as  to  the  tinting  strength  of  the  color,  but 
also  gives  valuable  information  as  to  the  tone.  Of  course 
the  quantities  may  be  \'aried  if  necessary,  and  a  larger 
amount  used  instead  of  the  single  grains.  It  need  hardly 
be  pointed  out  that  scrupulous  cleanliness  is  necessary  for 
successfully  carrying  out  this  test.  The  palette  knife  must 
be  wiped  between  each  operation  and  every  care  taken  to 
do  justice  to  both  samples. 

The  Permanence  of  Colors.  It  must  be  admitted  that  it 
is  very  disappointing  to  a  painter  to  find,  after  taking  pains 
to  produce  the  exact  color  required,  that  it  flies  or  fades 
after  a  little  exposure  to  the  weather.  The  tests  for  the 
permanence  of  a  color  when  exposed  to  light  are  simple 
enough,  and  are  to  mix  a  little  of  the  eoloi's  to  be  tested  in 
oil  and  to  spread  them  on  different  slips  of  paper,  cut  the 
paper  in  half,  number  each  half  with  corresponding  figures 
or  letters,  expose  one  half  to  a  strong  light  for  as  long  as 
may  be  deemed  desirable  and  put  the  other  half  away  into 
a  safe  place  where  the  light  does  not  penetrate.  Waxed 
paper  is  the  best,  as  it  will  not  absorb  the  thinners,  or, 
better  still,  glass  may  be  used,  this  being  cut  across  with  a 
diamond  after  the  paint  has  been  applied.  It  need  hardly 
be  said  that  the  permanence  of  water  colors  is  entirely  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  oil  colors.    As  far  as  pigments  are  con- 


Color  testing  123 

eerned,  yellow  ochres,  siennas,  umber,  Vandyke  brown  and 
the  earth  colors  generally  are  permanent,  as  are  Venetian 
red,  Indian  red,  chi'ome  yellow  and  lemon  yellow.  Ultra- 
marine, Prussian  blue  and  vermilion  are  also  permanent  or 
nearly  so. 

Colors  Fast  to  Light.  Some  colors  fly  or  fade  very  quick- 
ly, while  others  are  perfectly  permanent.  The  following  is 
a  list  of  the  principal  permanent  colors  under  ordinary  con- 
ditions: Yellow  ochre,  light  red,  Indian  red,  umber,  cad- 
mium yellow,  Prussian  blue,  cobalt  blue,  Vandyke  brown, 
red  ochre,  sienna,  red  oxide,  Venetian  red,  vermilion,  ultra- 
marine, chrome  green,  lamp  black,  and  other  black  pig- 
ments. 

Probably  the  simplest  method  of  testing  the  durability 
of  colors  is  to  provide  a  sheet  of  unglazed  cardboard;  that 
known  as  Bristol  board  will  do  very  well.  It  must  have  so 
slight  an  absorbent  property  that  if  any  coat  of  paint  is 
placed  on  the  surface  it  will  remain  there,  and  not  soak 
into  the  substance  of  the  cardboard.  This  sheet  of  board 
is  ruled  into  squares  or  rectangles  measuring  about  3x3 
inches,  or  2x2  inches. 

A  little  of  the  color  to  be  tested  is  ground  up  with  a 
little  gum  water  into  a  smooth  paste,  and  a  portion  of  one 
of  the  ruled  spaces  on  the  cardboard  painted  with  it.  It 
is  advisable  to  rule  and  prepare  two  sheets  at  the  same 
time.  The  name  of  the  color  can  be  written  either  under- 
neath the  patch  of  color  in  the  square,  or  in  a  corresponding 
position  on  the  back  of  the  card.  It  is  also  advisable  to 
grind  a  little  of  the  pigment  with  oil,  so  that  the  relative 
durability  as  a  water  color  and  as  an  oil  color  can  be 
tested. 

One  of  the  prepared  cards  is  hung  in  a  place  where  it 
is  exposed  to  as  much  sunlight  and  air  as  possible,  while 
the  other  card  is  placed  in  a  drawer  away  from  any  such 
influence.  After  a  week  or  two  of  exposure  the  cards  can 
be  compared  to  see  if  any  chancres  have  occurred;  they  can 


124  CYCLOl>EDlA  OP  PAINTING 

then  be  replaced  in  their  respective  positions,  and  from 
time  to  time  are  compared  together.  Any  change  which 
may  have  been  brought  about  by  the  action  of  sunlight  and 
air  on  the  exposed  card  will  be  observable;  some  colors 
will  be  changed  in  a  few  weeks'  exposure,  other  colors  re- 
quire months  of  exposure  to  produce  any  effect. 

By  placing  a  card  painted  in  the  manner  described,  with 
different  pigments  in  a  closed  cupboard,  in  which  is  placed 
a  vessel  containing  some  ferrous  sulphide  and  diluted  sul- 
phuric acid,  the  action  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  on  the 
colors  can  be  tested;  if  any  are  affected  by  this  test  it  is 
certain  that  they  will  be  similarly  affected  when  exposed  to 
the  action  of  impure  air. 


ESTIMATING'. 

Exterior  Work.  To  correctly  estimate,  one  must  know 
that  a  square  is  100  square  feet  and  that  a  square  yard  is 
9  square  feet.  He  must  then  obtain  the  actual  dimensions 
of  the  surface  to  be  painted.  He  must  know  how  many 
square  feet  there  are  in  the  work,  the  condition  of  the  sur- 
face and  the  amount  of  labor  and  material  required  to  do 
the  work,  whether  one,  two  or  three  coats.  He  must  know 
on  which  part  of  the  work  he  will  have  to  double  and  treble 
measure;  that  is,  where  the  work  must  be  measured  two 
or  three  times  to  arrive  at  the  amount  of  time  necessary  to 
paint  it.  After  he  has  taken  all  of  these  points  into  con- 
sideration he  is  ready  to  make  an  intelligent  estimate; 
however,  all  rules  for  measuring  a  surface  to  be  painted 
will  fall  short  of  the  desired  x'csult  if  good  judgment  is 
not  used.  No  definite  rules  can  be  furnished  which  will 
give  a  basis  for  ari'iving  at  the  exact  amount  of  labor  nec- 
essary on  work  which  is  difficult  to  handle  and  requires 
extra  ladders,  staging  or  scaffolding.  Should  the  estimator 
misflgure,  he  will  either  lose  money  or  lose  the  job. 

To  measure  a  building,  take  a  tape  line  and  begin  at  one 
corner  of  the  building,  measuring  all  of  the  same  height 
together;  multiply  this  by  the  height  of  the  building,  com- 
mencing at  the  outer  edge  of  the  cornice  and  running  to 
the  lower  edge  of  the  baseboard,  adding  1  to  II/2  feet  to 
the  height  for  the  edges  of  weatherboarding.  This  will 
give  the  number  of  squai-e  feet  in  the  building. 

To  measure  a  gable,  take  the  length  of  rafters,  multiply 
by  1/2  of  the  height  from  the  square  to  peak  or  comb  of 
the  roof.  This  will  give  the  number  of  square  feet  in  any 
gable. 

This  is  all  called  plain  work  when  painting  and  no  extra 

125 


126  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

measurements  nre  allowed  for  two  or  throe  stor}'  woi'k. 
Above  three  stories,  one-half  extra  measurements  are  al- 
lowed. Wall  work  measure  solid,  no  windows  or  doors  de- 
ducted. 

Stave  or  wainscoting  cornices.     l^/G  measurement. 

Shingle  gables,     ly^   to  double  measurement. 

Dormer  windows.     IV2  to  double  measurement. 

Dimension   shingles  cut.     11/2   to   double  measurement. 

Dimension    shingles   dressed.     Single   measurement. 

Dimension  shingles  cut,  undressed.  11/2  to  double  meas- 
urements, according  to   the   amount  of  work. 

Spindle  work,  turned.     Measured  solid  on   both  sides. 

Shingle  work  and  pickets,  square.    3  measurements. 

Veranda  railings   and   columns.     Measured   solid. 

Veranda  ceiliiags,  beaded  and  rafter  finished.  Double 
measurements. 

Verandas,  jilain.  Measure  floor  and  ceiling,  allowing  for 
the  brackets  and  columns. 

Verandas  that  have  heavy  columns  and  rails.  Measure 
floor,  ceiling  and  the  entire  veranda  solid. 

Columns,  rails,  lattice  and  turned  work.  Double  meas- 
ure. 

More  elaborate  scroll  or  ornamental  work,  also  square 
spindle  work,  close  set.    Treble  measure. 

Outside  blinds.    3  measurements,  usually  done  by  the  pair. 

Lattice  work.     2I/2  to  3  measurements. 

Picket  fence.     3  measurements. 

Another  system  for  measuring  verandas  which  is  con- 
sidered one  of  the  most  dillieult  by  a  great  manj'  painters 
is  to  measure  the  floor  and  ceiling  solid,  then  measuie 
around  the  veranda  the  same  as  in  measuring  the  building, 
taking  the  height  around  over  cornices  to  the  lower  edge 
of  base  or  lattice  work,  and  double  this  measurement  if 
many  brackets  or  raucli   scroll   work. 

Roof  Work.  Roofs  are  measured  solid  except  coping, 
which  IS  extra  if  painted  a  different  color. 


ESTIMATING  127 

Inside  Measurements.  Inside  work  is  measured  solid  on 
both  doors  and  windows,  with  three  inches  allowed  on  each 
square  opening  for  tracing  edges;  base  never  less  than  one 
foot.     Stair,  rail  and  balustrade,  three  times. 

Wall  Work.  With  wall  work,  where  the  doors  and  win- 
dows are  painted,  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  the  openings  is 
deducted;  where  the  openings  are  not  painted,  one-third  is 
deducted;  cupboards  and  pantry  shelves,  l^/^  measurement. 

Floors  measured  solid — plain  work. 

CONSIDERATION    OF   SURFACE. 

New  Work.  In  figuring  a  piece  of  work,  the  considera- 
tion of  the  surface  to  be  painted  is  of  as  much  importance 
as  measurements.  There  are  certain  lumbers  used  for  ex- 
terior building  which  cannot  with  safety,  to  produce  satis- 
factory results,  be  finished  with  two  coats  of  paint,  owing 
principally  to  the  great  absorption  of  the  lumber,  as  well 
as  its  varied  grain,  ranging  from  dark  to  light.  If  the 
paint  is  mixed  heavy  enough  to  cover  the  dark  grain  the 
lumber  will  not  be  satisfied,  and  while  a  single  painting 
may  show  satisfactory  results,  it  will  not  sufficiently  pene- 
trate nor  bind  to  withstand  contraction  of  future  coats, 
thus  causing  the  paint  to  break  from  the  surface. 

Upon  the  reputation  of  a  painter  depends  his  success. 
His  reputation  is  his  principal  stock  in  trade  and  should 
not  be  jeopardized  by  doing  work  against  his  judgment. 
If  an  architect,  contractor  or  property  owner  has  specified 
two  coat  work  without  consideration  of  the  surface,  and 
three  coats  are  necessary,  an  explanation  as  to  the  result- 
ing danger  through  such  should  be  given  him.  If  his  views 
can  not  be  changed,  don't  try  to  hide  the  surface  by  plas- 
tering on  the  paint,  but  apply  two  properly  reduced  and 
brushed  out  coats,  remembering  the  surface  must  be  satis- 
fied even  at  the  expense  of  hiding.  It  is  much  better  for 
all  concerned  to   have   the  lumber  satisfied,   thus  leaving  a 


128  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  PAINTING 

good  foundation  for  subsequent  paint  coats,  even  though  a 
surface  may  be  left  Avhich  will  soon  show  signs  of  wear 
under  weather  exposure  through  not  having  suflficient  pig- 
ment to  form  protection,  than  to  apply  heavy  coats  which 
will  not  properly  penetrate  nor  bind  and  with  future  coats 
soon  break  away,  leaving  a  surface  which  will  always  be 
a  treacherous  one  to  paint  no  matter  how  much  judgment 
may  be  used  in  future  painting. 

Old  Work.  The  value  of  a  practical  painter  is  his  prac- 
tical knowledge  in  knowing  how  to  treat  or  repaint  a  sur- 
face in  order  to  produce  the  best  results,  no  matter  in 
what  condition  the  surface  may  be.  It  is  impossible  to  give 
definite  instructions  regarding  old  work,  as  conditions  are 
too  varied,  but  there  are  a  number  of  important  points 
which  should  be  carefully  considered  in  figuring  on  this 
work.  In  appearance  the  building  may  be  in  first-class  con- 
dition and  apparently  only  need  freshening  up.  Examine 
the  surface  carefully  and  determine  whether  the  foundation 
coat  is  properly  bound  to  the  surface.  Do  not  be  responsi- 
ble for  some  one  else's  careless  work  in  not  having  prop- 
erly satisfied  the  surface,  thus  not  leaving  a  foundation  to 
which  subsequent  coats  can  be  applied  with  satisfactory 
results.  If  you  work  over  such  a  surface,  you  are  the  one 
who  will  be  blamed,  as  invariably  the  statement  is  made 
that  the  building  was  in  good  condition  before  the  last  coat 
of  paint  was  applied.  Don't  hesitate  under  such  condi- 
tions to  recommend  that  the  building  stand  for  a  longer 
period  before  repainting,  or,  the  application  of  but  one 
coat  of  paint  so  mixed  that  it  will  penetrate  through  the 
old   coating  and   into   the   original   surface. 

Never  apply  two  coats  of  paint  to  an  old  surface  when 
one  coat  properly  reduced  will  answer  the  purpose.  There 
is  as  much  danger  in  applying  too  much   paint  as  too  little. 


EXTERIOR   PAINTING'. 

New  Work.  Be  sure  the  character  of  the  lumber  is  un- 
derstood as  to  its  absorption  of  the  paint,  and  to  assure 
satisfactory  results  see  that  the  paint  is  reduced  as  tliin 
as  possible  according  to  the  conditions.  Do  not  paint  im- 
mediately after  rain  storms,  heavy  dews,  fogs  or  in  frosty 
weather.  See  that  the  surface  to  be  painted  is  thoroughly 
dry  and  in  proper  condition  to  receive  paint. 

Do  not  follow  too  closely  after  the  carpenter,  as  siding 
which  has  been  tied  in  bundles  is  very  often  wet  on  the 
inside.  Allow  time  for  the  siding  to  dry  out,  remembering 
that  it  is  very  hard  to  secure  dry  lumber.  Do  not  apply 
shellac  too  heavy  to  knots  and  sappy  places.  Have  it  thin 
and  brush  well  into  the  knots  or  other  places  that  require 
shellac.  Where  light  shades  of  paint  are  to  be  applied, 
use  white  or  very  light  colored  shellac. 

Priming.  It  is  bad  practice  to  prime  a  building  from  a 
carpenter's  scaffold.  It  is  best  to  have  the  entire  building 
ready  to  prime  at  one  time  so  that  the  same  mix  of  paint 
can  he  used.  In  this  way  a  more  even  and  better  coat  of 
priming  can  be  given. 

When  a  building  or  any  part  of  it  is  ready  to  receive  the 
priming  coat,  the  carpenter  should  remove  all  scaffolds, 
blocks  and  braces.  This  leaves  the  building  with  no  part 
of  the  surface  hidden  and  all  of  it  can  be  primed  without 
interference.  Ridges  are  left  on  a  building  primed  with 
blocks  or  braces  nailed  to  the  corner  strips  or  any  part; 
when  touched  up,  it  is  impossible  to  hide  these  spots  so 
they  will  not  soon  show  through  the  second  and  third  coats. 

It  is  good  policy  to  always  prime  a  building  before  the 
plasterer  commences  his  work,  as  the  priming  coat  will  keep 
the     dampness     and     fumes     of    the     mortar    beds     from 

129 


130  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  PAINTING 

penetrating  the  surface.  Reduce  the  paint  according 
to  the  absorbing  properties  of  the  surface.  Do  not  be  afraid 
of  getting  the  primer  too  thin.  It  must  be  thin  enough  to 
both  satisfy  and  fill  the  surface  and  not  leave  an  excess  of 
pigment  on  the  surface.  The  reduction  must  be  with  oil 
and  turpentine,  according  to  the  character  of  the  surface. 
Where  hard,  close  grained  woods  are  to  be  painted,  a  large 
percentage  of  turpentine  must  be  used  to  assist  in  opening 
the  pores  of  the  wood  and  allow  of  greater  depth  of  pene- 
tration. 

The  main  point  in  priming  is  to  satisfy  all  of  the  sur- 
face, thus  leaving  a  uniform,  even  coating.  A  soft  place 
here  and  there  that  is  not  satisfied  and  has  received  only  half 
enough  paint  will  soon  dry  out  spotted ;  other  places,  where 
the  wood  is  hard,  an  excess  of  paint  which  will  dry  with 
a  heavy  gloss.  A  good  and  satisfactory  job  of  painting 
cannot  be  done  over  an  uneven  coat  of  priming.  The  prim- 
ing coat  should  be  applied  with  as  much  care  as  the  fin- 
ishing coat.  Great  care  should  be  taken  in  keeping  the  paint 
of  a  uniform  consistency.  Where  it  is  possible,  prime  the 
entire  building  at  one  time,  as  it  is  hard  to  prime  a  build- 
ing in  patches  and  obtain  uniform  results.  In  priming,  use 
a  full  brush  of  paint  to  satisfy  the  soft  spots,  brush  well 
and  do  not  allow  a  surplus  of  paint  to  remain  on  the  hard 
places.  The  priming  coat  should  be  as  thoroughly  and  care- 
fully brushed  out  as  the  finishing  coat.  To  accomplish  this, 
a  good  full  stock  brush  must  be  used.  Do  not  trj-  to  use 
a  half-worn  or  cheap  brush,  as  good  results  cannot  be  ac- 
complished with  poor  tools.  Use  a  medium  full  brush  for 
painting  under  projections,  cornices  and  under  edges  of 
the  siding,  being  sure  to  fill  all  of  the  joints  with  paint, 
then  use  a  full  brush  on  the  face  of  the  siding  and  corner 
strips,  thoroughly  working  the  paint  out  under  the  brush 
so  the  pores  of  the  wood  will  be  filled.  Be  careful  not  to 
use  a  dry  brush  on  anj'  pait  of  the  work. 

A  building  primed  in  the  foregoing  manner  will  leave  ai; 


EXTERIOR  PAINTING  131 

even  surface  over  which  to  work  and  the  second  coat  will 
go  on  smoothly  and  can  be  brushed  out,  thereby  saving  time 
and  material. 

Putty.  Do  not  use  cheap,  ready-made  putty.  If  it  is  not 
possible  to  secure  putty  that  is  known  to  be  made  from 
linseed  oil  and  whiting,  it  is  best  for  the  painter  to  make 
the  putty  himself.  This  will  not  take  much  time  and  he 
can  always  be  assured  of  overcoming  some  very  annoying 
results.  Cheap  putty  will  peel  from  glass  or  after  being 
traced  with  paint.  Where  used  in  grooves  or  over  nail 
heads,  it  will  turn  yellow  after  paint  has  been  applied.  It 
is  also  ajDt  to  fall  out,  which  is  one  of  the  most  annoying 
things  that  can  happen.  A  formula  still  in  use  by  old  prac- 
tical painters  is  to  take  5  pounds  gilder's  whiting  and  1 
pint  raw  linseed  oil,  the  whiting  gradually  added  to  the 
oil  and  well  kneaded  in.  As  the  mixture  becomes  too  stiff 
to  work  by  hand,  pound  it  off  with  a  mallet  until  all  of  the 
whiting  is  added  and  mixture  is  of  a  glazing  consistency. 

For  a  waterproof  or  harder-drying  putty  for  use  in 
floor  seams  or  other  exposed  places,  to  the  foregoing  add 
one  pound  keg  lead  well  worked  in.  If  the  keg  lead  is  of 
a  thin  consistency,  a  little  more  whiting  may  be  necessary 
to  bring  the  putty  to  the  pi'oijer  consistency.  This  latter 
mix  will  be  found  to  be  more  durable  and  produce  more 
satisfactory  results  for  glazing  and  all  exterior  puttying. 
Knife  putty  into  all  seams,  cracks  and  nail  holes;  do  not  use 
the  thumb  in  pushing  putt}^  into  seams  and  cracks. 

Middle  Coat.  Be  sure  the  priming  coat  is  hard  dry.  Do 
not  have  the  second  coat  too  oily,  thus  drying  with  too 
high  a  gloss,  as  this  will  cause  the  finishing  coat  to  crack, 
peel  and  flatten.  Do  not  paint  over  dirt,  grease  or  mud 
splashed  on  the  building  from  down  spouts.  Do  not  paint 
over  frosts,  dews  or  wet  places.  Do  not  paint  while  the 
plastering  is  drying  out.  Be  sure  the  basement  is  not  wet 
or  damp.  If  such  is  the  ease,  the  moisture  is  liable  to  go 
up  through  the  house  between  the  walls  and  siding  and  be 


132  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  PAINTING 

attracted  to  the  surface,  causing  dampness  between 
Goats,  which  will  result  in  peeling  in  a  short  time.  See 
that  the  basement  windows  or  ventilators  are  open,  allow- 
ing the  basement  to  thoroughly  dry  oiit  before  applying  a 
second  coat  of  paint.  Use  a  full  stock  brush  that  has  been 
well  broken  in,  even  up  by  thoroughly  brushing  any  skips 
or  uneven  places  in  the  priming  coat. 

Where  light  shades  are  used  for  trimming,  better  results 
will  be  obtained  by  applying  the  trimming  color  on  both 
the  middle  and  finishing  coats.  Medium  dark  shade  trim- 
ming colors  can  be  used  for  the  finishing  coat  only.  Apply 
two  coats  for  solid  colors,  such  as  green,  black  and  red,  or 
one  coat  over  a  suitable  ground  color. 

Finishing  Coat.  Do  not  paint  when  there  are  indications 
of  rain  or  the  weather  becoming  cold.  Do  not  work  late 
in  the  evening  on  cold  nights.  The  paint  will  pucker  or 
crinkle  if  a  frost  or  cold  wind  strikes  it  when  half  dry. 
Do  not  attempt  to  apply  paint  early  in  the  morning,  or  on 
a  surface  that  has  been-  covered  Avith  frost  the  previous 
night.  Allow  plenty  of  time  for  the  surface  to  dry.  After 
the  paint  has  set,  do  not  attempt  to  touch  up  the  spots  that 
have  been  missed.  This  will  cause  peeling  of  such  places. 
"Wait  until  the  paint  is  dry,  repainting  the  parts  on  which 
such  spots  may  show.  The  paint  should  be  well  brushed 
and  plenty  of  elbow  grease  used.  Paint  flowed  on  to  cover 
or  hide  the  surface  will  soon  crumble  or  break  away  in 
scales.  No  paint  can  be  properly  applied  to  a  surface  with- 
out heavy  brushing;  this  makes  one  coat  adhere  to  the 
other.  Heavy  brushing  also  starts  oxidation  by  forcing  the 
air  through  the  paint.  Thorough  brushing  keeps  the  paint 
coat  even  and  uniform  and  prevents  the  paint  from  crink- 
ling or  leathering,  which  is  sure  to  be  the  result  if  it  is  not 
uniformly  applied.  Improper  bi*ushing  will  produce  heavy 
spots  which  are  sure  to  pucker  or  crinkle,  eventually  caus- 
ing the  paint  to  blister  or  peel  on  these  places. 

Always   finish   a  stretch   before   leaving  for  lunch   or  at 


EXTERIOR  PAINTING  133 

night.  Do  not  attempt  to  touch  up  ladder  or  stage  marks, 
as  such  will  always  show  in  spots.  Paint  the  whole  board 
on  which  such  spots  show.  Always  have  the  paint  for  the 
finishing  coat  free  from  specks  and  dirt.  Good  work  cannot 
be  done  with  dirty  or  lousy  brushes.  Clean  out  pots  at 
night.  Put  bi'ushes  away  carefully.  If  skins  have  formed 
or  dirt  has  got  into  the  paint,  strain  it  before  commencing 
to  work. 

Two-Coat  Work — Priming.  Before  commencing,  be  sure 
that  satisfactory  two-coat  work  can  be  done  on  the  lumber 
to  be  painted.  Be  sure  the  surface  is  dry,  as  the  priming 
for  two-coat  work  is  of  heavier  consistency'  than  for  three- 
coat  work  and  there  is  not  the  chance  for  the  surface  to 
dry  out  that  there  is  if  a  thinner  coat  is  applied.  Brush 
the  paint  out  well.  Do  not  flow  on,  leaving  the  paint  heavy 
in  one  place  and  thin  in  another.  Remember  this  coat  is  to 
help  cover  the  grain,  as  well  as  fill  the  wood,  and  only  one 
more  coat  is  to  be  applied  to  complete  the  work.  If  not 
uniformly  applied,  the  last  coat  will  soon  show  the  effects 
of  bad  priming.  Work  the  paint  well  into  nail  holes,  ci'acks, 
beading  and  seams.  Avoid  holidays,  as  they  will  show  up 
when  the  second  coat  is  applied.  Have  the  paint  of  a 
medium  thin  consistency,  carrying  sufficient  turpentine  to 
assist  in  penetrating  and  filling  the  wood.  This  coat  must 
both  satisfy  and  fill  and  leave  sufficient  pigment  on  the  sur- 
face to  assist  in  covering  or  hiding  the  grain  of  the  wood. 

Finishing  Coat — Two-Coat  Work.  Be  sure  the  priming 
coat  is  hard  dry  over  the  entire  surface  before  commencing 
to  apply  the  second  coat.  It  is  very  often  the  case  that 
part  of  the  work  has  been  primed  for  a  month  or  six  weeks 
and  other  portions  have  stood  for  only  a  few  days  on  ac- 
count of  the  inability  of  the  carpenter  to  finish  the  entire 
building,  or  like  causes.  Places  such  as  the  latter  will  in 
a  short  time  crack  or  peel,  and  when  a  complaint  is  entered 
the  entire  house  is  given  credit  for  having  been  primed  a 
month  or  six  weeks.    Do  not  apply  the  finishing  coat  during 


134  CYCLOPEDIA    OF    PAINTING 

the  time  the  plasterers  are  at  work,  as  there  is  more  or  less 
trouble  caused  by  the  mortar  being  splashed  or  thrown  over 
the  work  during  this  time;  this  necessitates  retouching, 
which  cannot  be  done  without  showing  spots.  Do  not  apply 
the  finishing  coat  during  the  time  the  plaster  is  drying  out, 
as  it  will  absorb  the  moisture  from  the  plaster,  causing 
1  rouble  through  the  paint  peeling  by  having  dampness  be- 
tween coats.  Finish  the  interior  of  the  building  before  ap- 
plying the  exterior  finishing  coat.  This  will  give  time  for 
the  plaster  to  dry  out  somewhat  before  this  finishing  coat 
is  applied  and  result  in  a  more  clean  and  satisfactory  job. 
See  that  the  basement  ventilators  are  open.  This  assists 
in  properly  drying  out  the  basement.  See  that  the  surface 
is  perfectly  clean  and  free  from  plaster  mortar  before  start- 
ing the  work.  Carefully  putty  all  nail  holes,  seams  and 
cracks.  Reshellac  the  knots  or  sappy  places  where  the 
pitch  may  have  come  through  the  priming.  As  this  is  the 
finishing  coat,  exercise  care  in  having  the  paint  uniform 
and  kept  to  the  right  consistency  to  insure  proper  covering. 
The  paint  should  be  of  a  full  oil  reduction  so  as  to  be  elas- 
tic, as  this  coat  must  both  hide  the  surface  and  withstand 
severe  exposure;  it  must  be  carefully  applied  and  of  the 
best  matei'ial  in  order  to  accomplish  these  results.  Use  a 
good  stock  brush  and  one  that  has  been  properly  broken  in. 
A  new  brush  will  not  allow  of  proper  application  or  spread- 
ing of  the  paint.  Work  out  well  under  the  brush  to  insure 
proper  binding  and  a  smooth,  even  coat.  Do  not  use  a  paint 
which  has  to  be  flowed  on  to  hide  the  surface,  as  this  will 
leave  a  spongj-  coat  without  proper  binding.  Bring  the 
body  and  trimming  color  down  together.  Wipe  off  the  body 
color  from  corner  strips,  door  and  window  frames.  Do  not 
work  this  paint  ofE  with  a  trimming  brush,  as  this  will 
cause  spots.  Square  up  the  work  at  noon  and  night  so  as 
not  to  have  any  laps. 

Three-Coat  Work — Priming.     See  that  the  surface  is  dry 
and  in  condition  to  receive  paint.     Study  the  character  of 


EXTERIOR  PAINTING  135 

the  lumber  and  reduce  the  paint  according  to  its  absorbing 
properties.  Note  general  information  in  regard  to  prim- 
ing new  work.  The  paint  should  be  mixed  to  a  thin  con- 
sistency to  fully  satisfy  the  lumber  with  only  enough  pig- 
ment used  to  fill  the  grain  of  the  wood  and  not  leave  an 
excess  of  pigment  on  the  surface.  This  will  allow  the  mid- 
dle coat  to  penetrate  through  the  priming  coat  to  a  suffi- 
cient depth  to  adhere  to  the  fiber  of  the  wood,  as  well  as 
the  pigment  in  the  primer,  thereby  assisting  in  binding  it- 
self to  the  surface  as  well  as  to  the  coats  that  are  applied 
over  it. 

If  the  primer  is  mixed  to  a  heavy  consistency,  it  will 
retard  absorption  or  penetration  and  leave  an  excess  of  pig- 
ment on  the  surface  that  will  under  contraction  and  expan- 
sion break  loose  when  successive  paint  coats  are  applied. 

Second  or  Middle  Coat.  Before  applying  the  second  or 
middle  coat,  be  sure  the  priming  coat  is  hard  dry  over  the 
entire  si;rface.  As  this  is  the  medium  between  the  founda- 
tion or  priming  coat  and  the  protecting  or  finishing  coat, 
extreme  judgment  must  be  used  in  mixing  the  paint  for  this 
coating.  It  must  not  be  too  elastic  and  should  di*y  with- 
out a  high  gloss.  The  paint  for  this  coat,  being  the  easiest 
working  of  any  applied  to  the  building,  requires  thorough 
and  careful  brushing  to  assure  satisfactory  results.  Reshel- 
lac  knots  or  sappy  places  if  necessary.  Knife  putty  into 
cracks,  seams  or  nail  holes.  The  paint  should  be  mixed 
heavy  so  as  to  brush  out  well,  also  assist  in  filling  and  pene- 
trating the  priming  coat,  leaving  a  surface  to  which  the 
finishing  coat  will  readily  adhere,  as  well  as  a  surface  which 
properly  dries  from  the  bottom  out. 

Too  heavy  an  oil  reduction  will  leave  a  high  glossy  sur- 
face over  which  the  finishing  coat  will  not  adhere  or  prop- 
erly dry.  The  reduction  should  be  with  sufficient  turpen- 
tine to  form  penetration  and  still  make  a  paint  which  will 
he  elastic  enough  to  Avithstand  contraction  and  expansion 
and  dry  firm.     Over  such  a  surface  the  finishing  coat  can  be 


136  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

brushed  out  smoothly  and  evenly  without  crawling  or  slip- 
ping under  the  brush.  The  paint  will  dry  without  danger 
of  iDuckering,  leathering,  or  flattening  of  the  finishing  coat 
as  would  be  the  case  in  a  short  time  if  applied  over  a  high 
gloss.  It  is  also  very  apt  to  crack  and  peel  if  oily  coats 
are  applied  one  over  another.  It  is  almost  impossible  to 
have  solid  painting  with  an  excess  of  oil  in  undercoats  as 
the  coats  will  most  alwa3's  be  spongy,  rarely  adhering  close- 
ly to  one  another. 

Finishing  Coat — Three-Coat  Work.  See  that  the  under- 
coat is  hard  dry  over  the  entire  surface.  The  surface  should 
be  perfectly  clean  and  free  from  dust  and  dirt.  Reputty 
where  necessary.  Follow  the  same  precautions  as  previ- 
ously given  for  finishing  coats.  Brush  thoroughly  and  care- 
fully. Use  a  full  stock  brush  properly  broken  in.  Do  not 
use  new  brushes  for  finishing  coats.  The  paint  for  this 
coat  should  be  the  most  elastic  one  applied,  as  it  must  stand 
the  most  severe  exposure.  It  should  be  of  good  consistency 
with  a  full  oil  reduction,  mixed  so  as  to  brush  out  smoothly 
and  evenly,  remain  where  left  without  danger  of  running 
or  sagging  and  dry  from  the  bottom  out.  The  drying  and 
gloss  are  always  assisted  by  having  the  under  or  middle 
coats  properly  reduced  and  applied.  Follow  previous  in- 
structions as  to  cleaning  off  body  color  on  parts  that  are 
to  be  trimmed.  Bring  down  and  square  up  the  work  so  as 
not  to  show  laps  or  poor  workmanship. 

Roof.  Be  sure  the  surface  is  dry.  Do  not  use  tar  oil  or 
other  offensive  smelling  oils  that  will  ruin  the  cistern  water. 
Turn  supply  pipe  from  cistern  when  painting  the  roof.  Mix 
the  full  amount  of  paint  requiied  for  the  first  coat,  as  it  is 
very  difficult  to  make  two  mixes  for  shingles  which  will  ap- 
pear the  same.  Apply  uniform  coats  to  prevent  spotting. 
Have  the  priming  coat  thin  so  it  can  be  easily  worked  into 
the  cracks.  Keep  ladders  from  resting  on  tin  or  in  gutters. 
Hook  over  the  comb  of  the  house.  Trim  the  ridge-board 
and  coping  as  the  work  progresses.    In  doing  this  work  do 


EXTERIOR  Painting  137 

not  go  over  the  roof  with  the  ladders  after  it  is  finished. 
The  life  of  a  shingle  roof  can  be  more  than  trebled  if  the 
shingles  are  dipped  into  properly  prepared  paint  before  be- 
ing laid. 

In  dipping  the  shingles,  they  should  be  dipped  at  least 
eleven  inches.  This  will  allow  4I/2  inches  to  the  weather 
and  6^/2  inches  for  the  under  lap.  Never  dip  damp  shingles; 
break  the  band  around  the  bunch  and  spread  them  out  to 
allow  of  drying  before  dipping  or  applying  the  paint.  For 
dipping  shingles,  use  paint  of  the  proper  consistency  for 
finishing  coat,  reduced  with  not  less  than  50  per  cent  raw 
linseed  oil.  When  the  shingles  are  laid,  finish  with  one  coat 
of  paint  of  a  finishing  coat  consistency.  Remember  the 
roof  is  subjected  to  very  severe  weather  wear  and  soon 
shows  defective  work. 

The  Paint.  The  paint  for  the  roof  should  be  of  good 
material.  A  mistake  which  is  often  made  is  that  a  very 
cheap  mixture  will  do  for  shingles.  Have  the  priming 
coat  thin  and  enough  of  it  mixed  at  one  time  to  cover  the 
entire  roof.  Keep  the  paint  uniform  while  working  and 
avoid  having  heavy  laps  or  spots,  as  they  will  soon  show 
through  the  second  coat  and  make  an  ugly  looking  job.  The 
second  coat  should  be  of  good  consistency  and  be  well 
brushed  out,  using  care  to  keep  from  applying  the  paint 
unevenly. 

roundation  and  Flues.  Do  not  paint  damp  brick.  Oil 
paint  is  the  best  size  for  brick.  If  the  flues  run  from  the 
foundation  to  the  roof  on  the  outside  of  the  building  and 
are  to  be  painted  a  different  color  from  the  house  or  given 
a  ground  color  of  Venetian  red,  they  should  be  painted  be- 
fore the  siding  is  painted,  especially  the  first  coat,  as  it  is 
very  hard  to  keep  paint  from  splashing  over  the  siding  in 
working  on  rough  brick.  Where  flues  are  to  be  penciled 
and  flat  brick  used,  the  flat  color  can  be  very  easily  applied 
after  the  body  color  has  been  applied.  Never  apply  less 
than   three   coats  on  brick.     If  after  the  second  coat  has 


138  CYCLOPEDIA   OP   PAINTING 

been  applied  the  soft  brick  show,  touch  them  up  before  ap- 
plying the  finishing  coat.     This  will  even  up  the  work. 

The  Paint.  The  first  coat  for  brick  and  foundation  flues 
should  be  mixed  thin  so  as  to  strike  into  the  brick  to  a 
good  depth  and  form  a  foundation  for  subsequent  coats. 
Ten  per  cent  of  the  total  amount  of  thinners  used  in  the 
priming  should  be  turpentine.  The  second  coat  should  be 
mixed  half  flat  and  well  brushed  over  the  surface.  The 
third  or  finishing  coat  should  be  elastic,  of  good  consist- 
ency and  applied  smoothly  and  evenly. 

Window  Sash.  If  the  house  is  to  be  finished  in  natural 
wood  on  the  inside,  shellac  the  sash  on  the  inside  and  prime 
on  the  outside.  Paint  the  rabbit  for  the  glass  so  that  putty 
will  adhere.  Before  setting  the  glass,  apply  a  coat  of  var- 
nish to  the  inside  and  a  coat  of  paint  to  the  outside  of  the 
sash.  This  will  save  a  great  deal  of  time  in  tracing.  If 
the  sash  is  to  be  black  or  dark  color,  give  the  surface  a  sec- 
ond coat  of  lead  color  mixed  half  flat.  Never  use  black  or 
dark  sash  color  on  bare  wood. 

Outside  Blinds.  Outside  blinds  should  be  primed  before 
the  carpenter  fits  them  to  the  window.  This  will  assist  in 
keeping  the  blinds  from  swelling.  Paint  for  all  coats  on 
blinds  should  be  thin  and  well  brushed  out.  Do  not  allow 
the  paint  to  be  heavy  on  the  rail  or  ends  of  slats.  Lay 
the  blinds  on  a  trestle  with  the  stick  side  up.  In  paint- 
ing, care  must  be  taken  not  to  get  too  much  paint  on  the 
ends  of  slats,  otherwise  they  will  stick.  If  the  work  is  to 
tie  painted  green  or  any  dark  color,  finished  Avith  two  coats, 
the  best  results  can  be  obtained  by  applying  a  priming  coat 
of  oil  paint  lead  color.  The  finishing  coat  must  be  mixed 
with  raw  oil  and  sufficient  dryer  to  set  the  paint.  If  three- 
coat  work,  prime  with  oil  paint  lead  color,  second  coat  with 
a  finishing  color  mixed  with  part  turpentine.  Do  not  paint 
the  ends  of  the  slats  or  inside  rails  with  this  coating.  This 
surface  should  receive  but  two  coats  of  paint.     The  finish- 


EXTERIOR  Painting  1:^9 

ing    coat    should    cover    the    entire    surface    and    should    be 
mixed  with  raw  oil  and  sufficient  dryer  to  set  the  paint. 

Brush  out  well  between  the  slats.  Never  use  paint  of 
heavy  consistency  on  blinds. 

When  drying,  open  the  slats.  Care  must  be  taken  never 
to  allow  the  slats  to  turn  down  flat  when  drying,  other- 
wise they  will  stick. 

Veranda  Columns  and  Rails.  These  should  be  primed 
as  soon  as  set,  as  they  are  usually  made  of  heavy  lumber 
and  liable  to  crack  if  not  primed.  Do  not  paint  columns 
and  rails  unless  dry.  Paint  will  soon  blister  or  peel  on 
heavy  timber  if  the  least  dampness  is  present.  Do  not 
paint  over  shop  or  mill  priming  without  thoroughly  sand- 
l^apering  or  scraping  off  as  much  of  this  paint  as  possible, 
as  it  is  usually  a  cheap  mixture  applied  heavy,  preventing 
penetration  and  not  fit  for  priming.  It  will  generally  peel 
in  a  short  time  after  another  paint  has  been  applied  over 
it.  Do  not  be  responsible  for  paint  applied  over  primers 
other  than  the  ones  you  applied.  Do  not  apply  paint  heavy 
on  round  columns,  as  very  little  paint  is  required  on  a 
round  or  convexed  surface.  If  applied  heavy,  it  will  soon 
blister,  crinkle  or  peel.  Carefully  guard  against  an  excess 
of  paint  on  this  kind  of  a  surface.  Use  very  nearly  a  dry 
brush  and  work  the  paint  out  well.  The  same  applies  to 
spindles  and  other  turned  work.  Guard  against  painting 
the  toiDS  of  rails  and  like  surfaces  which  are  damp  from 
frosts  or  dews. 

The  Paint.  The  paint  for  veranda  columns  and  rails 
should  be  reduced  in  the  same  manner  as  for  the  siding, 
but  requires  an  extra  amount  of  brushing.  The  paint 
should  be  well  brushed  out  to  insure  smooth,  even  coats. 
Knife  putty  into  all  cracks  and  nail  holes,  using  a  good, 
hard-drying  putty.  Sandpaper  the  columns  and  rails  be- 
fore applying  the  finishing  coat,  dust  off  and  apply  a  well 
brushed  coat.  This  work,  together  with  veranda  and  porch 
floors,   should   be   the  last   finished   on   the   exterior   of   the 


140  CYCLOPEDIA  OP   PAINTING 

building,  as  such  v/ill  insure  the  surface  from  being  scuifed 
or  damaged  by  use. 

Veranda  and  Porch  Floors.  A  heavj^  coat  of  paint  ap- 
plied on  the  tongue  and  groove  before  laying  will  more  than 
double  the  life  of  the  floor  through  keeping  out  the  water. 
Do  not  apply  coats  which  are  too  oily.  Brush  well  into 
the  surface.  Do  not  have  an  excess  of  i^aint  or  pigment  on 
the  surface.  Remember  the  floors  have  to  be  walked  on, 
consequently  the  paint  must  dry  firm  and  hard.  Thorough- 
ly fill  all  cracks  and  crevices  with  paint,  then  brush  out. 
Keep  the  work  clean.  Do  not  paint  over  mud,  grease  or 
plaster.  Do  not  use  old,  fatty  or  skinny  paint  for  floors. 
It  will  not  make  satisfactory  work,  Avill  never  dry  hard  and 
will  soon  scuff  off.  Do  not  paint  floors  immediately  after 
frosts  or  heavy  dews.  Allow  plenty  of  time  for  the  sur- 
face to  become  dry  and  warm.  Sufficient  turpentine  should 
be  used  in  all  coats  to  assist  the  paint  in  drying  and  hard- 
ening. More  trouble  is  caused  from  floors  not  properly 
drying  than  from  any  other  condition.  The  finishing  coat 
can  not  drj^  solid  if  undercoats  are  spongy;  neither  will 
the  paint  wear  well  Avhere  the  undercoats  are  not  thor- 
oughly hard.  A  finishing  coat  of  elastic  paint  can  be 
applied  over  a  flat  coat  without  causing  trouble,  but  a  flat 
or  quick-drying  paint  applied  over  an  oil  coat  will  cause 
cracking  or  peeling.  Do  not  flow  paint  on  floors  and  expect 
successful  work.  Two  coats  will  not  make  a  passable  job 
on  a  porch  or  veranda  floor. 

The  Paint.  For  jn-iming,  the  paint  should  be  of  a  thin 
consistency,  reduced  with  a  liberal  amount  of  turpentine 
so  as  to  penetrate  well  into  the  surface.  See  that  the 
priming  coat  is  thoroughly  dry  before  applying  subsequent 
coats.  Putty  all  seams,  cracks  and  nail  holes  with  putty 
Avhich  will  dry  hard.  The  second  coat  for  floors  over  good 
solid  priming  should  be  mixed  half  flat  so  as  to  dry  hard 
and  firm.  Enough  paint  should  be  left  on  the  surface  to  fill 
and  form  a  good  protecting  coat,  but  should  not  dry  with  a 


EXTERIOR  PAINTING  141 

gloss  or  tack,  as  such  retards  the  drying  of  the  finishing 
coat.  The  third  or  finishing  coat  should  be  elastic  and  of 
good  consistency,  carrying  sufficient  turpentine  to  work 
free,  penetrate  into  the  previous  coating  and  dry  hard  and 
firm.  Remember  that  walking  has  to  be  done  over  this 
coat,  therefore  it  must  be  brushed  out  smoothly  and  evenly 
so  as  not  to  leave  heavy  places  which  will  dry  unevenly 
and  soon  scuff  up  from  usage. 

Fence.  Do  not  neglect  the  fence.  Paint  it  as  well  and 
as  neatly  as  the  house.  The  pickets,  rails  and  caps  should 
be  primed  before  nailing  up,  as  this  will  save  a  great  deal 
of  time  and  allow  of  all  edges  to  be  painted.  Do  not  paint 
the  tops  of  rails  or  caps  when  damp  from  rain,  dew  or 
frost.  The  paint  should  be  of  the  same  consistency  as 
that  used  on  the  main  building,  and  if  the  rails,  pickets 
and  caps  are  primed  well  before  nailing  up,  two  coats  are 
usually  sufficient  for  the  fence.  The  fence  should  receive 
the  same  trimming  as  the  house.  The  paint  should  be  of 
the  same  material  as  used  for  the  main  building  and  as  well 
and  neatly  applied  as  on  any  other  part  of  the  work. 


EXTERIOR  PAINTING. 

Old  Work.  In  repainting  an  old  surface,  it  is  especially 
important  that  the  contractor  consult  a  practical  painter. 
Carefully  examine  the  surface  to  he  painted  befoi-e  com- 
mencing the  work  and  determine  whether  there  is  any  loose 
paint  or  whether  the  undercoat  is  in  condition  to  break 
loose  as  soon  as  an  elastic  coat  is  apiolied  over  it.  If 
the  building  has  previously  been  primed  with  ochre,  watch 
out  for  spots  that  have  received  a  heavy  coat  and  are  ready 
to  break  loose.  Examine  the  surface  for  dampness  from 
basements,  drain  pipes,  down  spouts  and  wet  soil.  Before 
starting  to  paint,  see  that  dampness  has  not  undermined 
the  paint  and  that  the  boards  do  not  contain  enough  mois- 
ture to  cause  the  paint  to  break  loose  as  soon  as  other 
coats  are  aiDplied  over  them.  Look  out  for  loose  scales, 
fine  or  powdered.  They  do  not  appear  to  be  dangerous, 
nevertheless,  they  will  keep  the  paint  from  adhering  solidly 
to  the  surface  and  make  it  soon  break  away.  Be  careful 
about  mildew,  as  this  condition  is  always  a  sure  sign  of 
dampness,  and  paint  applied  over  mildew  will  soon  spot  or 
peel.  Examine  the  surface  to  see  whether  the  paint  of 
previous  coatings  has  shriveled.  Paint  applied  over  a 
shriveled  undercoating  will  soon  break  loose.  Prepare  the 
paint  according  to  the  surface  over  which  it  is  to  be  applied. 

Repainting.  When  the  surface  to  be  repainted  is  in  good 
condition  and  not  cracked  or  peeled,  thoroughly  clean  the 
building  free  from  dust,  dirt  or  soot.  Wash  mildewed 
spots  with  turpentine.  It  is  seldom  that  one  mix  of  paint 
will  answer  for  all  parts  of  the  building.  Portions  of  the 
house  that  are  the  most  exposed  and  weather-beaten  should 
receive   the  most  elastic   coat  of  paint.     Portions   that   are 

142 


EXTERIOR  PAINTING  143 

protected,  like  under  porches  and  verandas,  and  portions 
shielded  by  trees  and  other  buildings,  which  would  render 
them  in  about  the  same  condition  as  under  verandas,  should 
receive  a  coat  of  paint  mixed  so  as  to  penetrate  the  old  sur- 
face and  dry  hard  and  firm  without  high  gloss.  If  one  mix 
of  paint,  which  will  satisfy  the  exposed  portion  of  the 
building,  is  applied  over  the  entire  surface  and  to  the  pro- 
tected or  hard  parts  of  the  building,  this  oily  or  elastic 
coat  of  paint  will  dry  with  a  full  or  heavy  gloss,  retarding 
the  drying  of  the  second  or  finishing  coat,  also  causing 
blistering,  checking,  cracking  and  flatting  in  a  short  time. 

First  Coat.  For  an  exposed  or  weather-beaten  surface, 
the  paint  should  be  mixed  with  2-3  oil  and  1-3  turpentine 
to  assist  in  penetrating  the  old  surface,  as  well  as  parts  on 
which  some  paint  still  remains.  It  should  be  applied  with 
a  full  brush  to  fully  satisfy  the  surface  and  be  well  and 
evenly  brushed  out  so  as  not  to  have  an  excess  of  paint  ou 
the  surface  where  the  old  paint  remains. 

The  cornices  and  protected  portions  should  receive  paint 
that  is  mixed  half  flat  or  with  enough  turpentine  to  force 
penetration  through  the  old  paint,  thus  firmly  binding  this 
coat  to  the  surface  and  preventing  the  second  or  finishing 
coat  from  crawling.  The  paint  should  be  applied  smoothly 
and  evenly  and  be  well  brushed  in.  Do  not  flow  the  paint 
on  and  expect  a  uniform  coat. 

Second  Coat.  When  the  surface  is  thoroughly  hard, 
putty  all  cracks,  seams  and  nail  holes,  knifing  the  putty 
well  in.  One  mix  of  paint  for  finishing  coat  can  be  applied 
over  the  entire  surface.  This  will  dry  uniformly.  The 
paint  should  be  mixed  to  medium  heavy  and  elastic  con- 
sistency and  be  well  and  evenly  brushed  out. 

Cracked  and  Peeled  Paint.  Owing  to  the  many  kinds  of 
cracked  and  peeled  surfaces,  as  well  as  the  innumerable 
causes  from  which  they  come,  it  is  impossible  to  give 
definite    directions   for   repainting   under   all    of    the   varied 


144  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

conditions.      Judgment   must    be    exercised    in   studying   the 
surface  and  treating  the  same  according  to  its  needs. 

The  following  suggestions  as  to  repainting  a  cracked  or 
peeled  surface  will  meet  the  most  common  of  both  found  in 
the  general  run  of  painting. 

The  preparation  of  a  surface  before  painting  is  one  of 
the  most  important  matters  to  be  considered.  Properlj'  pre- 
paring the  surface  will  often  go  a  great  way  in  assisting 
to  make  a  successful  job  of  painting  over  a  very  badly 
cracked  or  peeled  surface. 

To  properly  clean  a  surface,  it  should  be  scraped  and 
carefully  gone  over  with  a  wire  brush.  The  kit  should  con- 
sist of  a  good  scraper  and  two  wire  brushes,  one  stiff  and 
coarse,  the  other  fine  and  soft.  On  a  surface  where  the 
cracks  are  small  and  fine,  a  soft  brush  will  assist  in  clean- 
ing the  dirt  from  the  cracks  and  leaving  the  surface  in  bet- 
ter condition  than  will  a  coarse  brush.  On  a  surface  with 
large  cracks  or  a  peeled  surface,  a  coarse,  stiff  brush  will 
assist  in  forcing  off  the  scales,  also  breaking  the  peeled 
edges  that  have  begun  to  turn  out  and  are  sometimes  very 
hard  to  break  loose. 

The  amount  of  turpentine  recommended  in  the  following 
reductions  is  based  upon  a  gallon  of  hand  mixed  or  pre- 
pared paint  of   a   full    linseed   oil  reduction. 

Cracked  Surfaxies.  When  the  paint  is  cracked  in  small 
hair  lines,  it  is  usually  called  crazing  of  the  paint.  Gener- 
ally these  hair  lines  run  crosswise  of  the  grain  the  entire 
width  of  the  boards  to  which  the  paint  is  applied.  The 
paint  is  invariably  very  hard  and  this  crazing  is  often  at- 
tributed to  an  excess  of  zinc.  It  is  usually  caused  from  an 
improper  reduction  or  combination  of  pigments  which  do 
not  dry  uniformly,  one  being  more  easily  affected  by  heat 
•-^•i  o.old  than  the  others,  therebv  leaving  a  paint  surface 
■wdicfl  xs  nut  anilorm  as  to  coniraccion  and  expansion.  /hiO 
trouble  is  especially  noticeable  on  parts  of  work  that  have 
to  withstand  a  g^reat  deal  of  vibration.    If  the  paint  has  not 


EXTERIOR  PAINTING  145 

been  applied  too  heavy  and  upon  examination  is  found  to 
be  perfectly  bound  to  the  wood,  it  can  be  successfully  re- 
painted in  the  following  manner: 

A  great  deal  of  care  should  be  taken  in  the  preparation 
of  the  first  coat,  as  the  surface  is  usually  hard  and  brittle. 
If  the  paint  is  mixed  half  flat  it  will  have  sufficient  turpen- 
tine to  penetrate  well  into  the  undercoats,  and  if  well 
brushed  will   thoroughly  bind   to  them. 

The  finishing  coat  should  be  of  good  consistency  and 
well  brushed.  It  should  contain  from  1-32  to  1-16  gallon  of 
turpentine  to  a  gallon  of  paint,  as  the  paint  should  nut  be 
too  elastic,  otherwise  it  is  liable  to  blister  on  this  hard  sur- 
face if  exposed  to  heat  when  fresh. 

Paint  found  to  be  cracked  only  through  the  top  coat, 
the  checks  not  running  through  to  the  work,  makes  a  very 
treacherous  surface  to  i*epaint,  as  the  first  coat  applied  is 
liable  to  penetrate  only  through  the  hard  glaze  which  has 
already  commenced  to  crack  and  possibly  breaking  loose 
from  the  undercoats,  and  when  a  second  and  more  elastic 
coat  has  been  applied  this  glaze  will  break  loose  and  cause 
the  last  coats  to  peel.  The  first  coat  should  be  mixed  with 
14  gallon  of  turpentine  to  the  gallon  of  paint,  so  as  to  pene- 
trate, if  possible,  the  glazy  surface  to  the  undercoats  which 
are  more  firm,  thereby  binding  itself  as  well  as  the  finish- 
ing coat  to  the  surface.  The  finishing  coat  should  not  be 
applied  too  elastic.  This  is  to  avoid  having  an  excess  of 
oil  on  the  surface. 

Large  and  deep  cracks,  running  to  the  primer  or  under- 
coats, are  usually  caused  by  coats  being  applied  too  rapidly, 
not  allowing  sufiScient  time  for  pi'oper  hardening,  or  under- 
coats being  mixed  heavy  with  boiled  or  rosin  oil  or  an  excess 
of  japan  which  did  not  allow  the  paint  to  properly  harden 
and  left  the  under-surface  soft  and  spongy.  Such  paint  is 
usually  tough  and  elastic  and  the  undercoats  are  found  to 
be  spongy  and  easily  affected  by  hot  or  humid  weather. 
This  paint  usually  shows  no  si^s  of  peeiiog,  ae  it  is  very 


146  CYCLOPEDIA   OF  PAINTING 

tough  and  seems  to  be  firmly  adhering  to  the  wood,  but  to 
repaint  the  surface  requires  a  gi-eat  deal  of  care  in  keeping 
the  new  paint  from  following  the  first  coats  and  cracking 
in  like  manner.  Be  careful  not  to  have  an  excess  of  paint 
on  the  surface,  as  such  will  blister  and  peel. 

Thoroughly  clean  the  surface  with  a  wire  brush.  Mix 
the  first  coat  of  paint  fairly  elastic  or  with  1  pint  to  II/2 
pints  of  turpentine  to  a  gallon  of  paint.  This  will  not  dry 
too  hard  and  will  be  sufficiently  elastic  to  withstand  con- 
traction and  expansion  over  this  treacherous  surface,  also 
penetrate  to  a  good  depth.  Brush  out  well  and  do  not  at- 
tempt to  fill  the  cracks  with  this  coat.  The  finishing  ooat 
should  be  mixed  to  a  good  consistency  with  1-32  to  1-16 
gallon  of  turpentine  to  the  gallon  of  paint  and  be  well 
brushed  over  the  surface.  If,  however,  all  of  the  old  paint 
is  solid  and  dried  through,  a  half-elastic  coat,  %  gallon  of 
turpentine  to  a  gallon  of  paint,  can  be  applied  and  should 
be  well  brushed  into  the  cracks.  This  will  dry  firm  and 
hard  and  a  second  coat  of  elastic  paint  can  be  applied  over 
it.  This,  well  brushed  into  the  cracks,  will  to  a  certaiji 
extent  fill  them  and  make  a  very  passable  job  without 
danger  of  blistering,  which  would  be  the  result  if  a  first 
coat  of  very  elastic  paint  had  been  applied. 

Alligatored  Paint.  Where  the  paint  is  cracked  in  every 
direction,  forming  blocks,  triangles,  and  in  fact,  every  con- 
ceivable shape,  it  is  called  alligatoring.  This  comes  from  a 
number  of  causes,  but  can  usually  be  traced  to  non-drying 
undercoats  and  heavy  coats  of  different  mixtures.  Ochre  or 
similar  slow-drying  pigments  mixed  with  boiled  oil  will 
very  often  be  found  at  the  bottom  of  this  trouble.  Fatty 
paint  or  the  use  of  adulterated  oil  also  causes  paint  to 
alligator.  Such  paint  is  usually  tough  and  hard  except 
where  it  is  well  protected  and  there  the  undercoats  will  be 
found  to  be  tacky  and  spongy.  The  only  successful  way  to 
repaint  this  surface  is  to  burn  off  the  paint.  This  is  a  very 
difficult  job,  as  the  heat  softens  up  the  excess  of  oil  and  a 


EXTERIOR  PAINTING  147 

gummy,  sticky  mass  of  paint  is  the  result.  This  soon  gums 
the  knife,  also  fonns  a  cement  over  the  wood,  which  is  very 
hard  to  remove.  This  is  especially  true  where  excessive 
painting  has  been  done,  the  paint  having  been  mixed  with 
boiled  oil  or  an  excess  of  japan  added,  or  where  the  paint 
has  cracked  when  first  applied  and  paint  heavily  applied 
over  it  in  an  attempt  to  fill  the  cracks,  leaving  the  surface 
with  an  excess  of  oil  paint  spread  over  it. 

If  it  is  not  possible  to  burn  the  paint  off,  it  can  be  painted 
with  fairly  good  results  if  first  cleaned  with  a  wire  brush, 
breaking  the  edges  of  the  paint  that  may  have  commenced 
to  show  signs  of  peeling  and  turning  out,  also  removing 
all  the  dirt  from  the  cracks,  then  applying  a  coat  of  paint 
mixed  with  from  a  pint  to  a  quart  of  turpentine  to  the 
gallon  of  paint,  according  to  the  elasticity  of  the  surface. 
Do  not  apply  a  heavier  coat  than  is  absolutely  necessarj'. 
Be  particular  to  brush  the  paint  well.  Do  not  have  the 
paint  too  flat  on  the  protected  or  more  elastic  portions  of 
the  building,  as  these  parts  are  very  easily  affected  by  hot 
or  humid  weather.  Do  not  attempt  to  rush  the  work. 
Allow  ample  time  for  the  paint  to  harden,  then  apply  a  fin- 
ishing coat  of  paint  mixed  to  a  good  consistency  reduced 
with  1-32  to  1-16  gallon  turpentine  to  a  gallon  of  paint. 
Brush  out  well.  This  will  not  blister  nor  pull  the  under- 
coats and  will  make  a  fairly  satisfactory  job. 

Peeled  Paint.  In  pi-eparing  the  surface  for  the  repaint- 
ing of  peeled  work,  the  same  care  should  be  exercised  as 
with  cracked  paint.  Where  the  paint  has  commenced  to 
peel  in  small  chips  and  upon  examination  it  is  found  that 
the  trouble  is  with  the  last  or  finishing  coat,  such  is  called 
chipping  or  fluffing.  The  trouble  can  usually  be  traced  to 
the  improper  application  of  the  paint  or  its  having  been 
applied  over  dampness  caused  by  dews  or  frosts,  also  the 
paint  becoming  chilled  or  applied  in  freezing  weather,  not 
allowing  sufficient  penetration,  which  caused  it  to  soon  chip 
or  fluff  off.     This   trouble  can   very  easily   be   overcorqe  by 


148  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  PAINTING 

scraping  or  going  over  the  building  with  a  wire  brush  and 
coarse  sandpaper,  removing  all  the  loose  paint  and  then 
applying  one  coat  of  paint  of  good  consistency  mixed  elastic 
with  Yg  gallon  turpentine  to  the  gallon  of  paint.  This 
mixture  will  thoroughly  penetrate  and  bind  to  the  under- 
coats, generally  making  very  satisfactory  work. 

If  the  paint  is  peeling  in  small  thin  scales  and  the  trouble 
only  goes  as  far  as  the  priming,  it  usually  will  be  found 
upon  examination  that  this  coat  was  of  material  like  yellow 
ochre  which  has  been  applied  heavy  and  dried  with  a  gloss, 
the  second  coat  not  reduced  with  a  sufficient  amount  of 
turpentine  to  penetrate  the  hard  surface.  To  repaint  this 
surface,  the  scales  and  loose  paint  should  be  scraped  and 
brushed  off  and  a  coat  of  paint,  mixed  with  sufficient  tur- 
pentine to  penetrate  the  priming  coat,  applied  over  the 
spots  where  the  paint  has  peeled,  then  apply  a  well  brushed 
finishing  coat  over  the  entire  building.  This  should  not 
be  too  oily  or  elastic,  otherwise  it  will  break  loose  from  the 
undercoats,  but  it  should  carry  from  1-32  to  1-16  gallon 
turpentine  to  assist  in  brushing  and  penetrating  the  old  sur- 
face. 

Where  the  paint  is  peeling  in  patches,  exposing  the  bare 
wood,  and  it  is  found  upon  examination  that  the  backs  of 
the  scales  have  a  heavy  coat  of  ochre  or  some  other  diy 
pigment  which  is  absorbing  the  oil  from  the  wood,  and  the 
paint  has  not  been  applied  uniformly  and  is  breaking  away 
in  spots,  these  places  can  be  scraped  and  thoi'oughly 
brushed,  then  a  coat  of  paint  mixed  with  a  percentage  of 
turpentine  to  assist  in  penetration  applied  over  these  spots. 
One  coat  of  paint  can  then  be  applied  over  the  entire  build- 
ing, if  the  surface  is  in  fair  condition,  and  the  undercoats 
have  not  been  applied  too  heavily.  However,  if  the  build- 
ing has  been  standing  and  one  coat  is  not  sufficient,  the 
first  coat  should  be  mixed  half  flat  so  as  not  to  leave  an 
excess  of  oily  paint  on  the  surface.     This  will  even  up  the 


EXTERIOR  PAINTING  149 

work  and  an  elastic  finishing  coat  can  then  be  applied  over 
the  entire  building. 

When  a  building  has  been  painted  a  number  of  times 
and  the  surface  is  peeling  to  the  bare  wood,  the  only  sat- 
isfactory way  to  repaint  this  is  to  burn  the  surface  to  the 
wood,  following  special  instructions  given  for  burned  sur- 
face. 

Where  the  paint  has  peeled  in  spots  from  dampness, 
caused  either  by  wet  basements  or  plaster,  the  surface  can 
be  successfully  repainted  after  the  house  has  been  allowed 
to  dry  out,  by  cleaning  it  and  touching  up  the  spots  where 
the  paint  has  peeled,  then  covering  with  one  coat  of  paint. 
This  will  even  up  the  surface  and  avoid  repainting  the 
entire  building  if  only  part  of  the  house  is  peeling. 

Repainting  a  Surface  on  Which  the  Paint  Has  Been 
Burned.  Where  paint  is  peeling  or  cracking  badly,  the  only 
satisfactory  way  is  to  burn  the  paint  to  the  bare  wood. 
This  leaves  all  of  the  surface  practically  new,  and  if  the 
character  of  the  work  is  understood  good  results  can  be  ac- 
complished, but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  all  paints 
when  burned  do  not  leave  surfaces  in  the  same  condition 
and  the  resulting  character  of  each  must  be  understood 
before  mixing  the  priming  coat.  Where  an  excess  of  boiled 
oil  has  been  used  in  successive  repainting  and  the  work  has 
commenced  to  crack  or  alligator,  it  will  be  found  very  hard 
to  get  the  work  in  good  condition,  as  the  oil  will  set  on  the 
surface  and  form  a  glaze  which  is  very  hard  to  penetrate; 
likewise  where  fatty  oil  or  paint  with  a  percentage  of  gloss 
or  rosin  oil  has  been  used.  While  the  heat  of  the  burning 
lamp  softens  the  oil  and  paint,  it  is  very  hard  to  remove 
all  of  it  from  the  surface. 

To  repaint  this  surface,  care  should  be  exercised  in  thor- 
oughly sandpapering  and  scraping  or  breaking  this  glaze 
where  it  is  possible  and  a  liberal  amount  of  turpentine 
should  be  mixed  with  the  first  coat  to  force  penetration 
through   this   hard   surface.      Where   dry   ochre   or  similar 


150  CYCLXDPEDIA    OF    PAINTING 

primer  has  been  used,  causing  the  paint  to  peel  from  its 
not  having-  penetrated  the  surface,  only  a  small  proportion 
of  oil  having  gone  into  the  wood,  it  is  very  easy  to  remove 
with  a  burning  lamp,  leaving  a  surface  which  is  practically 
new,  as  most  of  the  oil  will  have  been  drawn  from  the  wood 
during  the  process  of  burning.  This  surface  can  then  be 
treated  the  same  as  any  new  wood,  with  possibly  the  ex- 
ception of  some  protected  parts  where  the  oil  has  pene- 
trated to  a  greater  depth  and  the  paint  is  in  better  condi- 
tion than  on  exposed  j^ai'ts.  The  cause  of  blistered  and 
peeled  work  can  often  be  traced  to  too  elastic  a  coating 
of  paint  having  been  applied  over  a  burned  surface.  This 
is  esiJecially  true  where  boiled  or  heavy  oil  has  been  used 
in  the  primer  of  the  paint  which  was  burned.  Boiled  oil 
should  never  be  used  in  a  paint  applied  over  a  burned  sur- 
face, it  will  not  penetrate  but  will  lay  on  the  surface  and 
will  soon  crack,  blister  and  peel.  These  troubles  are  often 
laid  to  dampness  or  the  paint  used,  or  some  defect  in  the 
building  which  supposedly  did  not  allow  the  paint  to  prop- 
erly harden,  while  the  true  cause  is  from  the  paint  not 
having  been  properW  reduced  or  applied  over  the  surface. 

Blistering.  When  paint  blisters,  the  cause  is  usually  at- 
tributed to  dampness,  and  it  is  perhajos  true  that  more 
trouble  of  this  character  on  new  buildings  can  be  traced 
to  wet  or  unseasoned  lumber  or  fresh  i^lastering,  than  to 
any  other  cause,  and  on  old  buildings  to  bad  roofs,  leaky 
gutters,  broken  down  spouts  and  wet  basements.  There  are 
so  many  chances  for  dampness  to  get  under  the  paint  of 
eitlier  Jiew  or  old  buildings  that  it  naturally  follows  there 
would  be  more  blisters  from  this  cause  than  from  all  others. 

As  to  buildings  being  in  the  foregoing  condition,  the 
weather  before  and  during  the  time  the  paint  is  applied  has 
niucli  to  do  with  it. 

Dampness  causing  blistering  of  paint  is  more  easily  de- 
tected than  any  other  condition.  This  is  especially  true 
where    the    dampness    comes    from    wet    plastering,    as    the 


EXTERIOR   PAINTING  151 

blisters  will  be  full  of  discolored  water  which  stains  the 
paint  when  they  break,  and  upou  removing  the  paint  over 
the  blisters  it  will  be  found  that  there  is  very  little,  if  any, 
paint  or  oil  left  in  the  grain  of  the  wood.  When  examin- 
ing surfaces  where  the  water  or  dampness  is  not  percep- 
tible at  the  time  of  the  examination,  it  is  safe  to  assume, 
without  fear  of  an  error  in  judgment,  that  dampness  has 
been  the  cause  of  the  trouble,  but  there  are  also  many  other 
causes  for  paint  blistering  which  are  often  laid  to  the  fore- 
going. 

Where  linseed  oil  has  been  used  from  the  bottom  of  a 
tank  and  the  settlings  or  foots  are  mixed  with  the  paint,  it 
will  cause  blistering.  This  has  the  appearance  of  dampness, 
there  being  spots  where  the  paint  has  not  penetrated  and 
the  surface  is  almost  bare.  This  paint  will  sometimes  pull 
away  in  large  blisters,  the  underneath  of  which  show  that 
the  paint  has  adhered  to  the  surface  but  contained  some- 
thing which  would  not  allow  of  solid  dr3dni4'.  This  trouble 
can  be  attributed  to  non-drying  mucilaginous  matter  which 
separated  fi'om  the  linseed  oil  and  did  not  allow  of  uniform 
penetration,  binding  or  drying.  Such  blisters  are  invariably 
oblong  and  folIoAv  the  grain  of  the  wood. 

New  linseed  oil  will  often  cause  the  paint  to  blubber  in 
very  warm  weather,  these  blubbers  causing  small  blisters, 
that  is  attributed  to  the  moisture  in  the  oil  which  the  heat 
draws  out  in  the  sliape  of  different  sized  blubbers,  breaking 
and  forming  small  blisters  when  the  paint  is  dry. 

Paint  mixed  with  rosin  oil  will  blister  under  extreme 
heat.  Paint  applied  over  old  work  blisters  more  often  from 
the  application  of  excessive  oil  coats  than  from  any  other 
cause  outside  of  dampness.  As  stated  before,  dampness  is 
easily  traced  in  either  old  or  new  work.  Numerous  coats 
of  oil  paint  will  often  blister  very  soon  after  the  paint  has 
been  applied.  The  back  of  these  blisters  will  show  that  the 
paint  has  at  one  time  been  dry  and  was  hard  enough  to  hold 
to  the  surface,  but  when  paint  was  applied  over  it,  it  could 


152  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  PAINTING 

not  stand  the  tension  or  pull  of  the  other  coats.     This  is 
caused  by  numerous  coats  of  oil  paint  which  do  not  thor- 
oughly cement  together  and  form  a  solid  foundation.     This 
can   be   proven   by   the   backs   of   the   blisters   which   often 
have  glossy  spots   that  would  not   show  had   the   coats  of 
paint  thoroughly  cemented  or  adhered.     Other  parts  of  the 
blisters    show   gummy    points,   proving   the   paint   had   once 
been  cemented  together  in  spots.     This  also  shows  that  the 
paint  was  over-elastic  and  had  pulled  away  from  the  surface 
by  the  heat  which  broke  the  coats  apart.    This  latter  trouble 
is  sometimes  called  a  splitting  of  the  paint.     An  excess  of 
oil  on  a  hard  surface  like   ochre  priming,  where   there  has 
not    been    sufficient    penetration,    will    cause    the    paint    to 
blister  on  protected  parts  of  the  building,  such  as  under- 
neath porches,  etc.     This  trouble  is  very  hard  to  understand, 
but  the  true  cause  is  excessive  heat  on  a  porch  or  veranda 
floor,  reflecting  on  the  sides  of  the  building,  causing  blister- 
ing or  the  raising  up  and  breaking  loose  of  the  paint  from 
the    under-surface,    this    is    especially    true    where    the    sun 
reaches  porches  and  verandas  which  have  an  enclosed  end, 
preventing  free  circulation  of  air  and  causing  intense  heat. 
Blistering    sometimes    takes    place    from    excessive    paint- 
ing on  the  sides  of  buildings  where  the  sun  does  not  reach. 
This  is  caused  by  radiation  of  the  heat,  which  is  very  intense 
at  certain  times  of  the  day,  and  no  free  circulation  of  air, 
also   from   stone   or   cement  walks   which   become   very  hot 
from  the  rays  of  the  sun,  radiating  this  heat  and  blistering 
the   paint   for   some    distance   above   these   walks.     Freshly 
painted  veranda  floors  will  reflect  enough  heat  on  the  side 
of  a  building  to  cause  the  paint  to  blister  and  break  away. 
Veranda  ceilings  will  sometimes  blister.     The  cause  can  be 
traced  to  water  which  has  been  thrown  on  the  floor  or  to 
pools  of  rainwater  which  reflect  the  heat  of  the  sun  on  the 
ceiling,   forming  a   lens   the  same   as  would  a   convex  glass 
if  laid  in  the  same  position.     This  reflection  will  cause  the 
paint  to  blister  on  ceilings  and  the  trouble  is  often  misat- 
tributed  to  leaky  roofs,  gutters  or  like  causes. 


EXTERIOR  PAINTING  153 

Blistering  Over  Ochre.  If  a  coat  of  oil  paint  is  applied 
over  a  heavy  coat  of  ochre  priming  which  has  dried  hard 
and  flinty,  it  will  often  cause  it  to  blister  badly  when  ex- 
posed to  the  heat  of  the  sun.  This  result  is  due  to  the 
paint  not  penetrating  into  the  hard  surface,  thus  leaving  an 
excess  of  oil  on  the  ochre  coat.  Where  ochre  is  mixed  dry 
with  oil,  it  is  impossible  to  thoroughly  incorporate  thfe  two 
and  when  applied  will  sometimes  raise  up  in  small 
blisters:  the  under  part  will  be  found  dry  and  the  paint  can 
be  powdered.  This  is  caused  by  the  dry  ochre  lying  on  the 
surface,  absorbing  all  of  the  oil  and  leaving  nothing  to 
satisfy  the  wood,  consequently,  the  heat  of  the  sun  will 
soon  pull  it  away.  This  is  more  noticeable  after  another 
coat  of  paint  has  been  applied  over  the  priming. 

To  successfully  repaint  blistered  work,  the  character  of 
each  kind  of  blister  must  be  understood;  study  the  cause  of 
the  trouble  and  repaint  the  surface  accordingly.  If  water 
or  dampness  is  the  cause,  the  paint  for  retouching  should 
be  mixed  with  a  full  oil  reduction  to  satisfy  the  bare  wood; 
if  from  fat  oil,  it  must  be  mixed  with  sufficient  turpentine 
to  penetrate  the  surface  which  this  oil  leaves;  if  from  fatty 
or  non-drying  oil,  the  surface  must  be  first  washed  with 
turpentine  to  remove  the  grease,  then  touched  up  with  paint 
mixed  with  part  turpentine  to  assist  in  penetrating  to  a 
good  depth. 

For  ochres  and  like  surfaces,  the  same  directions  apply 
for  touching  up  as  for  a  peeled  surface.  On  old  work  where 
the  paint  has  blistered  from  an  excess  of  oil,  retouch  with 
paint  mixed  half  flat.  This  will  penetrate  through  the  old 
paint  and  give  a  good  foundation.  After  the  work  on  the 
foregoing  has  been  touched  up,  the  entire  building  can  be 
given  a  coat  of  paint:  this  will  even  up  fairly  well,  but  the 
spots  caused  by  the  blisters  will  show  to  a  certain  extent. 

Roof.  Do  not  paint  damp  shingles.  Allow  time  for  rain, 
dew  or  frost  to  dry  off  and  the  roof  to  become  thoroughly 


154  CYCLOPEDIA   OF    PAINTINa 

dry.  Sweep  the  roof  with  a  good  broom  and  remove  all 
dirt,  lint,  cinders  and  soot. 

The  mix  of  paint  depends  upon  the  condition  of  the 
roof.  Use  good  material  reduced  with  raw  linseed  oil  in 
painted  shingled  roofs. 

On  old  shingles  apply  a  uniform  coat  of  paint  mixed 
to  the  consistency  of  satin.  It  is  necessary  to  have  the 
paint  of  a  very  thin  consistency  to  fully  satisfy  the  old 
weather-beaten  shingles.  When  thoroughly  dry,  apply  a  fin- 
ishing coat  of  heavier  consistency,  well  worked  into  the 
cracks. 

If  the  roof  has  been  pi'eviously  painted  or  the  sliingles 
dipped  before  laying,  and  are  in  a  fair  condition,  the  paint 
can  be  used  of  heavier  consistency  and  one  coat  is  usually 
sufficient  to  do  a  satisfactory  job  on  this  surface. 

It  is  sometimes  claimed  that  a  roof  has  faded  or  spotted 
out  in  a  comparatively  short  time.  This  is  more  often  the 
case  where  combination  pigments  which  go  to  make  up 
greens  or  olives  have  been  used.  In  the  majority  of  cases 
such  complaints  can  be  traced  to  the  color  not  fading,  but 
the  oil  having  been  absorbed  by  the  shingles,  these  not  hav- 
ing been  fully  satisfied  by  the  undercoat  reductions.  A  little 
oil  rubbed  over  the  surface  will  demonstrate  that  the  full 
color  is  thei'e  but  has  flatted  out  through  having  been  robbed 
of  the  oil  required  to  bring  out  the  original  shade  or  bril- 
liancy. 

Foundation  and  Flues.  Foundations  or  flues  which  have 
been  painted  should  be  treated  the  same  as  new  work. 
Wiiere  foundations  or  flues  have  been  kept  painted,  with  oil 
paint,  one  coat  of  similar  color  mixed  to  a  good  consistency 
is  usuallj'  sufficient.  This  should  be  applied  after  the  house 
has  been  finished.  If  previously  finished  in  flat  color  and 
is  to  be  painted  again  in  the  same  manner,  one  oil  paint 
coat  of  good  consistency  and  one  coat  of  flat  color  should 
be  applied. 

Window  Sash..     Break  sashes  loose  so  they  can  be  worked 


EXTERIOR  PAINTING  155 

without  trouble.  Scrape  off  all  loose  paint  and  putty,  then 
sandpaper.  If  the  putty  is  soft  or  broken  away,  it  is  best 
to  remove  all  and  not  attempt  to  patch  up  broken  places. 
Apply  a  heavy  coat  of  paint  in  the  groove  where  the  putty 
has  been  removed.  The  same  paint  used  for  trimming  or 
body  color  is  often  used  for  this  coat,  but  should  usually  be 
of  a  heavier  consistency  and  requires  a  different  mix,  how- 
ever, where  blacks  or  reds  are  used,  it  is  a  good  idea  to  have 
a  groundwork  of  diirk  lead  color  for  black  and  terra  cotta 
for  reds.  If  the  sash  is  in  good  condition,  not  badly  weather- 
beaten,  the  paint  should  be  mixed  half  flat  and  a  finishing 
coat  of  black  or  red  varnish  color  applied.  Before  applying 
this  finishing  coat,  reputty  the  sash  where  necessary.  If 
the  putty  is  to  be  painted,  it  is  best  to  reputty  some  days 
before  tracing,  so  it  will  become  set. 

Outside  Blinds.  Remove  blinds  from  the  building  and 
examine  the  slats  to  see  whether  they  will  work.  If  stuck 
together  from  previous  painting,  they  are  sometimes  very 
difficult  to  break  loose  and  require  a  great  deal  of  patience 
to  keep  them  from  breaking.  Use  a  sharp  knife  and  cut  in 
between  the  slats,  also  at  the  ends.  Break  one  slat  loose  at 
a  time.  As  soon  as  broken  loose,  cut  or  scrape  the  old  paint 
from  the  edges  of  rails,  also  ends  of  slats,  and  break  the 
paint  from  around  the  staples  on  stick  so  they  will  work 
freely.  Sandpaper  exposed  parts  and  dust  off  thoroughly. 
If  the  blinds  have  been  closed  and  the  inside  is  in  good  con- 
dition, they  will  require  only  one  coat  of  paint  on  this  part. 
Exposed  and  weather-beaten  parts  should  receive  the  first 
coat  of  paint  of  medium  consistency  mixed  with  2-3  and  1-3 
turpentine,  well  brushed  out.  The  ends  of  slats  and  inside 
of  fi'ame  work  do  not  need  this  coat.  After  the  first  coat 
has  become  hard  dry,  the  blinds  should  receive  a  coat  of 
paint  all  over.  The  paint  should  be  of  good  oonsisteuey  and 
be  well  brushed  out  so  as  not  to  have  an  excess  of  paint, 
causing  the  slats  to  work  hard.  Leave  the  slats  open  until 
the  paint  is  dry.    If  closed,  they  are  very  apt  to  stick. 


156  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  PAINTING 

Veranda  Columns  and  Rails.  Be  sure  that  the  surface  is 
dry.  Scrape  and  sandpaper  loose  paint  from  veranda 
columns  and  rails  before  first  coating.  Fill  the  cracks  and 
nail  holes  with  paint.  See  that  there  is  no  mildew  on  the 
base,  skirting  boards  or  lattice  work  caused  by  dampness 
underneath  the  porches  and  verandas.  Knife  putty  into 
cracks  and  nail  holes  before  applying  finishing  coat.  Use 
the  same  paint  as  for  the  building,  well  brushed  out  on  the 
round   columns   and   turned  Avork. 

Veranda  and  Porch  Floors.  Sweep  the  floor  clean,  also 
remove  dirt  from  cracks  so  that  the  paint  can  be  brushed 
into  them.  Paint  applied  too  heavily  on  floors  will  not  dry 
solid  and  will  soon  scuff  up.  Be  sure  there  is  no  damp- 
ness coming  from  underneath,  as  such  will  cause  the  paint 
to  blister  or  peel  and  not  allow  of  proper  hardening.  It  is 
very  hard  to  avoid  blistering  in  the  repainting  of  floors 
that  have  been  kept  oiled.  First  wash  the  floor  with  tur- 
pentine and  wipe  off  dry,  then  apply  a  thin  coat  of  paint 
mixed  half  flat.  Allow  ample  time  for  the  paint  to  harden, 
then  apply  the  finishing  coat  mixed  with  2-3  oil  and  1-3 
turpentine,  well  brushed  out. 

On  old  floors  that  have  been  kept  well  painted,  one  coat 
is  often  sufficient.  Where  they  are  badly  weather-beaten 
they  should  receive  a  coat  of  paint  of  good  consistency 
mixed  with  2-3  oil  and  1-3  turpentine.  When  hard  dry, 
putty  the  cracks,  nail  holes  and  seams,  then  apply  a  coat  of 
paint  of  heavier  consistency  mixed  with  the  same  propor- 
tions of  oil  and  turpentine.  The  floors  and  steps  should  not 
receive  the  finishing  coat  until  all  of  the  other  painting  has 
been  completed. 

The  fence  should  receive  the  same  care  as  to  preparing 
the  work  for  painting  as  the  building.  Sweep  and  dust  the 
work  thoroughly  before  painting.  The  same  mixture  of 
paint  should  be  used  on  the  fence  as  on  the  house  and  the 
fence  trimmed  with  the  same  color. 

Old  Work— One  Coat.    Where  the  paint  has  stood  for  two 


EXTERIOR  PAINTING  157 

or  three  years  and  one  coat  is  to  be  given  over  a 
shade  similar  to  the  one  already  on  the  building,  the  sur- 
face should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  with  a  wire  brush  or 
broom,  then  thoroughly  dusted.  It  is  sometimes  necessary 
to  wash  the  surface  with  sponge  and  water  to  remove  the 
smoke  and  dirt,  which  otherwise  will  work  up  through  the 
paint,  changing  the  color  and  making  un-uniform  shades. 
It  is  almost  imiDOssible  to  brush  dirt  streaks  out  and  the 
only  way  to  get  the  work  in  condition  for  painting  is  to  first 
wash  the  surface  with  water.  Allow  time  for  the  surface 
to  dry,  then,  if  the  wear  of  the  paint  is  found  to  be  uniform, 
one  coat  mixed  to  a  good  consistency  with  a  full  oil  reduc- 
tion and  sufficient  turpentine  to  assist  the  working  will 
make  a  satisfactory  job.  If,  however,  upon  examination 
the  paint  is  found  to  be  weather-beaten  or  weai-ing  off  in 
spots  on  the  exposed  parts,  the  building  will  have  to  be 
touched  up  on  these  exposed  portions  and  a  coat  of  paint 
applied  to  the  entire  surface  to  even  it  up;  otherwise  it 
will  be  spotted  when  the  paint  has  dried  out,  making  an 
unsatisfactory  job. 

If  the  paint  has  not  worn  down  to  the  wood  and  is  only 
worn  off  to  the  undercoats  which  are  solid,  mix  the  paint 
with  half  turpentine  and  half  oil,  go  over  the  exposed  por- 
tions of  the  building  with  a  smooth,  even  coat,  and  as  soon 
as  hard  dry  give  the  entire  surface  a  coat  of  paint  mixed 
to  a  good  heavy  consistency,  as  before  directed.  The  paint 
should  dry  out  even,  thus  making  satisfactory  work. 

As  all  portions  of  a  building  do  not  have  uniform  expos- 
ure, it  is  very  hard  to  find  a  surface  where  one  coat  will 
produce  satisfactory  work  over  the  entire  building.  On  the 
most  severely  exposed  parts  of  a  building,  the  paint  will 
naturally  show  more  wear  than  on  the  protected  parts  and 
thpse  exposed  parts  will  need  to  be  touched  up  or  painted 
over  CO  even  them  up  with  the  less  exposed  portions. 


GILDING. 

Gilding  may  be  broadly  luulerstooc!  to  mean  the  applica- 
tion of  metals  in  thin  leaf  form  to  decorative  purposes,  by 
the  use  of  mordants  and  vehicles.  Oriuiually  limited  in 
scope  to  the  application-  of  gold  loaf,  it  has  now  become 
a  general  practice  to  substitute  manj^  kinds  of  metal,  both 
in  imitation  of  gold,  and  in  order  to  produce  other  metallic 
color  effects.  This  is  not  altogether  to  be  regretted,  as  the 
use  of  the  more  precious  metal  in  such  a  form  that  it  is 
ultimatelj'  totally  lost  to  the  community  is  a  deplorable 
waste,  which  is  not  entirely  defensible,  especially  as  it 
draws  a  large  quantity  of  the  metal  away  from  its  more 
legitimate  use  in  '  the  arts  of  the  goldsmith  and  metal 
worker.  The  small  proportion  used  for  really  high-class 
decorative  work,  as  in  illuminating  and  iDerraanent  decora- 
tive schemes  and  pictures,  is  in  proportion  less  than  one 
per  cent  of  the  enormous  amount  used  for  commercial  ad- 
vertising, and  the  overlaying  of  plaster  and  composition 
picture  frames. 

The  various  metals  in  common  use  for  gilding  in  the  leaf 
form  are: 

Platinum. 

Gold,  in  many  degrees  of  fineness  and  tint. 

Alloys  of  gold  and  copper. 

Alloj's  of  gold  and  silver. 

Alloys  of  copper  and  silver. 

Alloys  of  copper  and  tin. 

Silver. 

Aluminium. 
The  alloys  are  known  as  metal   d'or,  Dutch  metal,  gold 
metal,   etc.     The   commonest   and   cheapest   forms  are   thick 
and  brittle  in  quality,  while  the  better  degrees  of  gold  leaf 

158 


OILDIKG  159 

are  beaten  to  extreme  thinness,  the  malleability  and  duc- 
tility of  the  metal  allowing  as  many  as  2,500  leaves,  3 
inches  by  3i/4  inches,  to  be  obtained  from  1  ounce  of  fine 
gold,  or  to  put  it  in  another  way,  the  total  thickness  of  300,- 
000  leaves  is  less  than  1  inch.  Gold  leaf  is  usually  put 
up  in  books  of  25  leaves,  each  leaf  being  31/4  inches  square. 
It  is  sold  by  the  1,000  leaves — viz.,  40  books.  Silver  leaf 
is  usually  4  inches  by  4  inches,  and  metals  are  made  in 
both  sizes,  and  larger. 

Gold  leaf  is  termed  white,  pale,  medium,  deep,  extra  deep, 
citron,  red,  etc.,  according  to  its  color.  Gold  is  readily 
damaged  in  the  book  by  handling,  damp,  and  shaking,  for 
this  reason  good  gold  leaf  of  recent  make  should  be  selected. 
The  best  work  cannot  be  produced  by  any  other.  It  should 
be  kept  in  a  dry  place,  and  may,  with  advantage,  be  placed 
upon  a  hot  plate,  or  in  the  oven  prior  to  using.  The  red 
powder  on  gold  books  is  put  on  to  prevent  the  gold  sticking 
to  the  leaves  of  the  book,  it  is  bole,  a  red  earth  from  Ar- 
menia, of  peculiarly  flaky,  smooth,  and  soft  texture.  A  red 
French  clay  is  sometimes  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

Methods  of  Gilding.  The  various  methods  of  applying 
gold  leaf  used  by  painters  and  decorators  are  termed:  Oil 
gilding,  Japan   gilding,   and  Water  gilding. 

These  methods  vary  in  detail  upon  different  kinds  of 
grounds.  Oil  or  Japan  gilding  is  used  upon  painted  sur- 
faces, or  grounds  that  have  been  strongly  sized  or  var- 
nished. 

Oil  Gold  Size.  Oil  gold  size  is  a  preparation  of  fat  lin- 
seed-oil, which  has,  by  exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  lost 
its  power  of  absorbing  oxygen,  and  become  viscid  and  less 
hard  drying,  it  may  be  prepared  by  exposing  linseed  oil  to 
the  air  and  light  in  a  wide,  open-mouthed  vessel  for  about 
six  months.  To  make  it  usable  and  give  it  a  little  body  and 
color,  ochre  is  ground  up  in  about  one-third  of  the  whole 
quantity  and  added  to  the  whole  bulk,  a  little  driers,  usually 
litharge,  is  also  required,  and,  if  too  thick  for  use,  it  must 


160  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

be  thinned  to  proper  consistency  with  boiled  oil.  A  small 
quantity  of  good  varnish,  one  part  to  twenty,  added  to  gold 
size,  gives  it  hardness  and  additional  luster.  Good  oil  size 
will  be  ready  to  receive  the  gold  at  any  time  between  twen- 
ty-four hours  and  a  week  from  the  moment  of  using  it,  and 
the  longer  it  holds  its  tackiness  the  better  is  the  result, 
provided  that  the  size  ultimately  dries  firm  and  hard,  like 
a  piece  of  gold-beater's  skin. 

Japanners'  G-old.  Size  is  a  quick  varnish  drying  in  about 
half-an-hour  to  two  hours,  and  is  ready  for  gilding  as 
soon  as  sufficiently  dry.  It  must  be  gilded  upon  at  once 
when  this  is  the  ease,  as  the  tack  soon  changes  into  a  hard 
varnish  surface. 

Gilding  can  be  done  with  varnish,  but  the  excessive  gloss 
gives  a  blackish  look  to  the  gold,  and  as  the  varnish  hard- 
ens it  loses  its  hold  of  the  metal,  which  will  then  wash  off 
with  soap  and  water.  Notwithstanding  this  fact,  it  is  often 
used  in  large  proportions  added  to  gold  size  by  certain 
decorators,  who  admire  the  additional  gloss,  but  do  not 
trouble   about   durability. 

Many  special  sizes  of  a  varnish  nature  are  made  for  sign 
writers. 

Water  Grold.  Sizes  vary  in  their  nature  for  different  pur- 
poses. For  gilding  on  prepared  wood,  papier  mache,  plas- 
ter, or  composition,  as  for  picture  frames,  two  kinds  are 
used,  burnish  and  matt  gold  size. 

Burnish  Gold  Size  is  made  from  pipeclay  and  black  lead, 
with  a  small  quantity  of  mutton  suet  added  in  the  grinding. 
It  can  be  purchased  ready  made,  and  is  used  with  ordinai-y 
parchment  or  gelatine  size  as  a  binding  medium.  Gilding 
on  this  size  will  take  a  good  polish,  or  burnish  with  an 
agate  burnisher. 

Matt  Gold  Size.  Matt  size  is  for  gold  which  is  required 
to  have  a  matt  or  dead  surface,  and  is  made  from  pipeclay, 
Armenian  bole,  and  other  materials.  It  can  be  purchased 
ready  for  mixing  with  the  clear  parchment  or  jelly  size. 


GILDING  161 

Isinglass  Gold  Size.  Gilding  upon  glass  is  done  with  isin- 
glass size.  Take  a  pinch  of  best  Russian  isinglass,  put  it 
into  a  pint  of  water,  and  stand  the  whole  in  a  covered  jar 
in  the  oven  for  a  few  hours,  when  dissolved  or  cooked  add 
a  ^  pint  of  spirits  of  wine  and  strain  or  filter  through 
white  filter  paper.  The  spirits  of  wine  removes  the  solid 
or  waste  portion  of  the  isinglass,  and  also  serves  to  counter- 
act grease  on  the  glass,  or  in  the  hairs  of  the  brushes  used, 
its  action  is  similar  to  that  of  wine  in  milk. 

Clear  Size  for  Gold.  Gold  is  often  clear  sized  to  im- 
prove its  color  and  pi-event  blooming.  This  size,  as  well  as 
that  used  for  matt  and  burnish  work,  is  best  prepared  from 
finest   gelatine,   or   from  boiled   parchment   cuttings. 

Tools  for  Laying  Gold.  The  operation  of  gilding  is  the 
same,  whatever  process  is  used,  in  as  far  as  laying  the  gold 
is  concerned.  The  best  and  general  method  is  by  means  of 
a  cushion  and  tip.  The  cushion  is  a  small  board  about  8  by 
5  inches,  covered  with  flannel,  and  over  this  a  tightly 
stretched  chamois  leather.  A  draught  screen  of  parchment 
is  fitted  round  one  half  of  it,  this  to  prevent  the  wind  re- 
moving, the  gold  from  the  cushion.  It  has  a  thumb  strap 
beneath,  and  loops  for  the  knife,  etc.,  and  is  held  like  a 
palette  on  the  left  hand.  The  other  tools  required  for  the 
laying  are  a  gilder's  knife  and  a  tip. 

The  knife  is  a  long  flexible  blade  of  equal  breadth 
throughout  its  length.  The  tip  is  a  flat  brush  made  by  set- 
ting a  row  of  hairs,  either  camel  or  badger's,  between  two 
pieces  of  card.  The  fingers  of  the  left  hand  hold  the  tip 
and  knife  alternately  when  either  is  not  being  used  by  the 
right  hand.  Dabbers  and  camel-hair  brushes,  and  mops, 
are  required  to  press  the  gold  down  in  its  place,  and  remove 
superfluous  scraps. 

Laying  Gold  Leaf.  The  size  being  ready  to  receive  the 
gold,  about  a  dozen  leaves  are  put  in  a  heap  in  the  back 
part  of  the  cushion,  then  the  cushion  is  taken  in  the  left 
band  and  the  knife  in  the  right. 


162  CYCLOPEDIA   OP   PAINTING 

The  gold  is  taken  from  the  book  by  merely  opening  each 
leaf  and  gently  blowing  the  gold  out  on  the  cushion.  With 
the  knife  a  leaf  of  gold  is  taken  to  the  front  of  the  cushion, 
laid  squarely,  and  deftly  blown  out  flat,  cut  to  any  size  re- 
quired by  a  sharp  jerking,  saw-like  .movement  of  the  knife 
not  like  ordinary  cutting,  the  knife  is  then  transferred  to 
the  left  hand,  and  the  tip  to  the  right,  the  gold  is  then 
taken  up  by  the  tip  and  laid  uj^on  the  work.  The  whole 
process  is  extremely  simj^le  after  practice.  Breathing  must 
be  carried  on  gently  thi'ough  the  nostrils,  so  as  not  to  dis- 
arrange the  gold.  "When  blowing  a  leaf  flat,  aim  a  smart 
jet  of  air  right  into  the  center  of  the  leaf,  sudden  and 
short.  When  cutting,  lay  the  edge  of  the  knife,  which  must 
not  be  keen,  on  the  gold  leaf  firmly,  give  a  little  jerk,  lift  it 
up,  and  the  gold  will  separate.  Take  care  not  to  cut  the 
leather  of  the  cushion.  The  knife  must  not  be  sharp  enough 
to  do  so.  If  the  gold  does  not  at  once  adhere  to  the  tip, 
pass  the  same  lightly  over  the  hair  or  beard  to  slightly 
grease  it;  this  also  sets  up  a  magnetic  action  which  assists 
to  hold  the  gold.  It  must  not  adhere  too  firmly  to  the  tip, 
or  the  gold  will  tear  in  transferring  itself  to  the  gold  size. 
Always  allow  each  leaf  to  lay  Y^  inch  in  lajang,  to  secure  a 
good  joint.  Use  whole  leaves  wherever  possible,  and  fault 
up  every  hole  and  crevice  before  dabbing  down.  Well  press 
down  all  joints  or  there  will  be  a  slight  gap  apparent  at 
the  junction. 

In  gilding  a  plain  surface,  hammer  well  down  with  a  firm 
touch  and  a  good  cotton  wool  pad  before  skewing  off,  and 
then  skew  with  a  soft  new  stencil  tool,  using  a  circular 
motion,  and  polish  with  a  soft  piece  of  cotton  wool.  Laying 
gold  upon  oi'dinary  oil  or  Japan  gold  size  is  sometimes  done 
by  a  process  of  transferring.  This  process  is  economical 
and  useful  for  outside  work,  or  for  etched  and  partial  gilt 
work.  To  accomplish  the  process,  the  gold  must  be  what  is 
known  as  transfer  gold,  gold  leaf  which  has  been  put  upon 
tissue  paper.     Sheets  of  thin  tissue  paper  are  cut  into  con- 


GILDING  163 

venient  sizes  and  slightly  waxed  with  a  tablet  of  white 
wax.  When  pressed  against  the  gold  leaf  in  the  book,  the 
leaf  adheres  to  these  waxed  sheets  and  is  from  them  in  turn 
transferred  to  the  work.  The  waxed  sheets  being  slightly 
adhesive,  only  those  portions  of  the  leaf  that  are  in  contact 
with  the  gold  size  leave  the  tissue  sheet,  and  so  there  is  no 
waste.  The  tissue  being  somewhat  transparent  the  oper- 
ator can  see  exactly  what  gold  is  still  left  upon  the  tissue, 
and  utilize  every  portion  of  it  for  the  work  in  hand,  he  can 
also  see  when  the  gold  size  has  not  been  covered  with  the 
gold.  Gold  can  be  transferred  to  the  tissue  leaves  without 
the  necessity  of  waxing  them,  by  merely  interleaving  the 
gold  book  with  tissue  and  putting  the  book  into  a  copying- 
press  and  well  pressing. 

The  exceptions  to  these  two  methods  of  laying  the  gold 
are  fanciful  and  individual,  the  most  general  being  what 
is  termed  laying  from  the  book.  "\^nien  gilding  a  large  flat 
surface,  the  gold  leaf  can  be  laid  direct  from  the  book  and 
much  time  saved  thereby,  by  the  use  of  a  long-haired  tip 
which  can  take  up  a  leaf  at  a  time  without  the  necessity  of 
cutting.  The  odd  spaces  and  small  bits  are  afterwards  filled 
from  the  cushion  in  the  usual  manner.  Another  method  is 
to  dispense  with  the  tip,  and  by  taking  the  book  m  the  left 
hand,  and  opening  it  with  the  right  to  turn  the  leaves 
straight  on  to  the  work.  This  is  a  great  saving  of  time  for 
large  letters  out  of  doors  or  for  large  flat  surfaces  of  oil 
size  gilding,  but  it  requires  some  dexterity  to  be  sure  and 
economical. 

All  gilding  for  interior  decoi'ation,  and  all  out-door  gild- 
ing that  can  be  conveniently  left  long  enough  before  gilding, 
should  be  done  in  oil  gold  size.  The  exceptions  are,  when 
lime  is  an  object  of  importance,  or  where  the  work  is  fine 
and  intricate,  as  in  small  lettering. 

To  Prevent  Gold  Sticking  to  Ground.  The  ground  for 
■.-old  sizing  must  be  free  from  any  tackiness,  hard,  dry,  and 
impervious.     If  it  is  not  so  it  must  be  coated  with  some 


164  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

preparation  to  prevent  the  gold  sticking  where  it  is  not  re- 
quired. The  white  of  an  egg  beaten  up  with  a  little  water 
is  the  best  preparation  upon  varnished  or  enamelled  work. 
The  white  of  one  egg  to  4  ounces  of  water  is  sufficiently 
strong.  Upon  ordinary  painted  work,  a  good  rubbing  with 
a  pounce  bag,  that  is,  a  small  calico  bag  filled  with  fine 
sifted  whiting,  will  suffice.  A  little  size  and  water  is  also 
effective,  and  if  a  little  whiting  is  added  to  it,  it  is  still 
more  so.  White  of  egg  must  not  be  used  too  strong,  never 
more  than  two-thirds  water  to  one-third  egg.  This  is  the 
least  detrimental  to  the  luster  of  the  gold.  Ordinary 
painted  work  that  has  to  be  partly  gilt  and  then  varnished, 
may  be  prepared  by  rubbing  with  a  piece  of  very  fine  glass 
paper  and  some  dry  whiting.  Whiting  preparations  have  a 
tendency  to  cause  the  gold  size  to  run. 

The  gold  size  must  be  laid  evenly  and  sparely.  If  laid 
too  heavily  it  will  crinkle  up  after  the  gilding  has  been 
done.  It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  add  color  to  the  gold  size 
in  decorative  work,  so  as  to  see  better  where  the  size  is  put 
on  level,  etc.  Tube  colors  may  be  used  for  this  purpose,  and 
they  should  always  approximate  to  the  color  of  gold  as 
nearly  as  possible,  as  the  gold  leaf  is  full  of  innumerable 
small  holes,  and  the  color  used  in  the  size  has  an  effect  upon 
the  appearance  of  the  gold  when  laid.  Chrome,  burnt 
sienna,  vermilion,  or  ochre  are  suitable  colors. 

Gold  size  should  never  be  gilded  unless  quite  ready.  The 
size  should  be  just  tacky  enough  to  hold  the  gold  leaf,  but 
never  wet  enough  to  smear  or  move  if  rubbed  with  the  fin- 
ger tip.  Gold  laid  upon  too  wet  size  will  turn  black  and 
lusterless.  The  precise  condition  is  ascertained  by  the  ap- 
plication of  the  clean  finger  tip,  and  practice  will  enable  the 
operator  to  judge  very  accurately. 

Turpentine  should  not  be  used  as  a  thinner  in  gold  size, 
because  it  leaves  behind  it,  after  evaporation,  a  resinous  oil, 
which  never  properly  hardens.    A  little  boiled  oil  is  the  best 


GILDING  165 

thinner.  Japanners'  gold  size  may  be  thinned  with  a  little 
turpentine  if  both  are  heated  to  boiling  point  together. 

Oil  gilding  should  always  be  well  washed  down  with  clean 
water  and  a  soft  sponge,  and  then  sized  with  clean  gelatine 
size,  this  washing  hardens  the  oil,  and  the  size  protects  and 
preserves  the  gold  and  gives  it  a  more  uniform  luster,  in 
place  of  the  broken  metallic  brilliance  it  has  as  the  result 
of  its  beating.  Before  washing,  it  should  be  carefully 
pressed  down  with  cotton  wool,  all  faults  made  good,  and 
the  whole  dusted  off  with  cotton  wool  or  a  camel-hair  dab- 
ber. 

In  gilding  enriched  and  molded  surfaces,  the  gold  Avill 
sometimes  require  double  laying,  in  order  to  reach  the  in- 
terstices of  the  work. 

All  waste  gold,  known  as  skew,  should  be  saved  and  used 
for  dusting  into  the  carved  portions,  and  when  these  are 
dusted  out,  the  skew  should  be  carefully  collected  in  a  tin 
canister  for  future  use,  or  for  disposal  to  the  dealer  in  old 
gold  and  silver. 

Burnish  and  Matt  Gilding.  Burnish  and  matt  gilding  are 
much  alike  in  method  of  procedure.  They  are  principally 
used  for  enriched  ornament,  cornices,  and  picture  frames. 
The  work  is  brought  up  to  a  good  surface  in  size  and  whit- 
ing, and  then  coated  with  five  or  six  coats  of  the  matt  size 
or  burnish  size,  as  the  case  requires,  each  coat  being  rubbed 
down  with  very  fine  glass  paper,  and  the  size  laid  on  with 
a  camel-hair  brush  and  allowed  to  dry  thoroughly  between 
each  coat.  When  the  ground  has  a  sufficient  number  of 
coats  to  be  perfectly  solid,  the  gold  is  laid  with  water  only. 
The  size  is  well  wetted  with  water  in  a  camel-hair  brush, 
and  the  gold  laid  on  the  water,  which,  as  it  dries,  carries  the 
gold  on  to  the  size  coat  and  fixes  it  there.  The  leaf  must  be 
laid  immediately  following  the  water  while  it  is  yet  live,  to 
accomplish  this  quickly,  the  expert  gilder  uses  the  water 
brush  with  his  right  hand  by  clenching  it  with  the  two 
little  fingers  in  his  fist  at  the  same  time  as  he  has  the  gold 


166  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

upon  the  tip  held  between  the  forefinger  and  thumb  of  the 
same  hand.  The  floAving  -water  catches  the  gold  from  the 
tip,  and  spreads  it  out  smoothly  on  the  surface  of  the  water 
in  the  moment  or  two  between  the  application  and  the  ab- 
sorption of  the  water  by  the  distemper  ground.  This  com- 
pletes the  gilding  as  far  as  the  matt  portion  is  concerned, 
except  for  a  final  clear  sizing  and  sometimes  coloring  or 
coating  with  ormolu. 

The  burnished  portion,  howevei*,  requires  polishing  or 
burnishing.  This  is  done  at  the  moment  the  gilding  is  drj', 
and  before  it  becomes  so  hard  as  to  be  brittle.  An  agate 
or  flint  stone,  set  in  a  handle,  is  the  burnisher.  These  are 
of  different  shapes.  They  are  rubbed  lightly  against  the 
gold,  which  takes  a  remarkably  high  polish,  and  retains  it. 
Burnished  gold  must  not  be  sized. 

Burnish  and  matt  gilding  are  confined  to  the  flat  or  curved 
plain  portions  of  the  work,  and  are  done  first.  The  en- 
riched and  fancy  parts  are  afterwards  oil-sized  and  gilded 
in  the  usual  manner. 

Ormolu  for  matt  gold  is  prepared  from  best  garnet  shellac 
and  white  sticklac  dissolved  in  spirits  of  Avine,  and  tinted 
to  the  required  depth  with  dragon's  blood,  a  few  drops  are 
added  to  the  usual  gelatine  or  parchment  size  to  produce 
an  even,  lusterless  and  rich  surface  of  any  desired  depth. 

Glass  Gilding.  Gilding  upon  glass  is  done  in  the  same 
manner  as  described  for  water  gilding,  isinglass  size  being 
used  in  the  place  of  water.  The  glass  is  well  cleaned,  freed 
from  grease,  and  set  before  the  operator  at  a  slight  angle, 
sometimes  the  glass  is  upright,  as  in  a  window,  and  has 
to  be  done  in  that  position.  The  isinglass  size,  before  de- 
scribed, is  used  in  precisely  the  same  way  as  the  water  in 
water  gilding,  and  the  gold  laid  on  the  flowing  size  so  as  to 
stretch  itself  out  as  the  size  recedes.  The  size  must  be  used 
freely  and  allowed  to  run  off  quickly.  It  must  not  be  strong, 
the  weaker  it  is  the  brighter  will  the  finish  of  the  gold  be. 
The  less  size  there  is  remaining  between  the  glass  and  the 


GILDING  167 

gold  and  between  the  two  coats  of  gold,  the  better  polish 
can   be  obtained. 

In  all  other  methods  of  gilding  the  gold  is  attached  from 
the  back  of  the  leaf,  and  the  finished  work  shows  the  un- 
alloyed brightness  of  the  metal,  but  in  the  case  of  glass  gild- 
ing, the  size  comes  between  the  gold  and  the  eye,  and  the 
glass  interposes  a  further  medium,  so  that  it  is  at  once  ap- 
parent that  the  cleaner  the  glass,  and  the  clearer  and  thinner 
the  film  of  size,  the  less  is  the  brilliance  of  the  gilding  in- 
terfered with.  The  purity  and  cleanliness  of  the  size  and 
glass  will  be  assured  if  the  size  can  be  laid  upon  the  glass 
without  cissing  or  gathering.  If  it  runs  off  like  water  on 
a  duck's  back,  the  glass  is  greasy  or  the  size  is  not  clean, 
or  perhaps  the  water  used  is  too  harl,  boiled  rain  water 
makes  the  best  size,  but  it  must  be  clean  and  clear. 

Gilding  on  glass  requires  a  second  coat  in  order  to  make  a 
solid  job.  The  first  coat  of  gold  when  dry  is  lightly  polished 
with  finest  cotton  wool,  and  fixed  and  burnished  by  scalding 
with  very  hot  water  as  near  boiling  as  can  be  used  without 
splitting  the  glass.  It  may  be  poured  over  from  the  spout 
of  a  kettle,  so  as  to  run  over  the  whole  of  the  gilding,  and 
then  down  on  to  the  ground,  or  laid  over  with  a  broad  4- 
inch  camel-hair  flat.  This  removes  the  scum  of  the  size  from 
betAveen  the  gilding  and  the  glass  and  adds  to  its  clarity 
and  brilliance.  The  work  may  then  be  carefully  polished 
with  a  piece  of  finest  cotton  wool.  It  is  then  alloAved  to  dry 
and  the  whole  of  the  gilding  and  clearing  with  hot  water 
repeated.  After  this  the  gold  is  backed  up  by  a  coat  of  hard 
Japan  or  varnish  which  will  dry  in  about  eight  hours  and 
have  a  perfect  gloss.  In  cold  weather  the  whole  of  the  glass 
must  be  treated  with  the  hot  water  whether  gilded  or  not, 
or  breakage  will  result  from  the  inequality  of  expansion 
produced,  and  if  the  day  be  frosty,  the  job  must  be  done 
very  cautiously  in  a  hot  shop,  or  defended.  The  water  must 
never  be  boiling. 

The  gold  used  for  glass  gilding  is  specially  prepared,  being 


168  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

more  even  in  thickness  than  the  ordinary  gold,  and  put  up 
in  books  of  special  paper  that  does  not  require  dusting  with 
French  chalk  or  Armenian  bole  to  prevent  the  gold  adher- 
ing to  the  book.  The  gold  thus  supplied  is  much  cleaner 
than  that  used  for  general  purposes.  It  is  important  that 
glass  gilding  be  made  to  dry  off  quickly  and  that  no  time 
be  allowed  to  elapse  between  the  operations,  or  it  will  accu- 
mulate dust  and  get  discolored. 
J  Although  gilding  on  glass  is  looked  upon  as  a  difficult 
matter  to  successfully  carry  through,  all  the  difficulties  ai-e 
overcome  by  the  exercise  of  cleanliness.  The  cleanliness  of 
the  glass  may  be  tested  by  breathing  on  it,  and  if  the  mois- 
ture evaporates  quickly,  leaving  the  glass  clear,  it  will  do. 
Glass  may  be  made  chemically  clean  by  the  use  of  dilute 
nitric  acid,  and  well  rinsing  with  water. 

Tissue  paper  is  a  good  glass  polisher.  Filtered  rain- 
water makes  the  best  isinglass  size,  or  distilled  water,  as  it 
is  free  from  metallic  taint. 

Gilding  upon  paper,  parchment,  and  vellum  can  be  best 
done  by  using  a  size  made  from  yolk  of  eggs  and  glycerine. 
This  is  ground  together  with  a  little  ochre  and  thinned  with 
water.  If  used  in  a  very  liquid  state  as  a  mere  water  wash 
size,  and  the  gold  is  laid  directly  thereon,  as  in  glass  gilding, 
it  may  be  tooled  or  burnished.  All  gold  work  should  be 
sized  before  writing  or  painting  upon  it. 

Platinum  and  Silver  Laying  and  Metaling.  Platinum  leaf 
is  used  in  the  same  manner  as  gold  lead,  and  is  applicable 
to  all  the  same  purposes. 

Silver  leaf  and  gold  leaf  of  very  pale  tint,  that  is,  which 
contains  a  large  proportion  of  silver,  should  never  be  laid 
on  the  oil  gold  size,  neither  should  metals  which  are  subject 
to  oxidization,  as  the  oil  has  a  strong  affinity  for  oxygen, 
and  the  oxidization  of  the  metals  is  set  up  and  goes  on  more 
rapidly.  If  used  upon  a  spirit  size  or  water  size,  and  well 
protected  with  lacquer  or  spirit  varnish,  these  metals  will 
be  perfectly  lasting.     Their  durability   depends  entirely  on 


QlLDINa  169 

their  perfect  enclosure  and  envelopment  in  an  air-tight  case 
of  lacquer  or  varnish,  both  under  and  above  them, 

Japanners'  gold  size,  with,  or  without,  the  addition  of  a 
little  Venice  turpentine  makes  as  good  a  size  as  can  be  had 
for  metals.  There  are  many  special  sizes  for  the  purpose 
prepared  ready  for  use,  but  nothing  is  better  than  a  good 
full  bodied  japanners'  size  exposed  to  the  air  for  a  few  days 
to  fatten  a  little. 

Aluminium  leaf  may  be  used  best  on  a  mixture  of  ochre 
ground  in  oil  and  japanners'.  It  is  reported  to  be  un- 
changeable, and  is  so  as  far  as  it  has  been  tested  in  actual 
decorating.  It  cannot  be  lacquered  into  a  good  gold,  but 
silver  leaf  can.  Silver  is  more  lustrous  than  aluminium, 
which  has  a  rather  leaden  look  when  used  alone.  It  makes 
a  pretty  combination  with  gold,  being  grayer  than  silver. 
The  cheaper  metals  can  be  laid  by  hand,  as  they  are  so 
thick  as  to  stand  handling  freely,  and  can  be  cut  into  pieces 
with  a  pair  of  scissors. 

The  principal  qualification  for  success  in  gilding  is  a  deft 
and  delicate  handling  of  the  metals,  especially  gold  leaf, 
and  there  must  also  be  a  ready  recognition  of  the  possibil- 
ities and  peculiarities  of  each  kind.  Always  remember  that 
whatever  the  condition  of  the  under  size  or  ground,  it  is 
hermetically  sealed  up  when  the  leaf  is  put  on,  which  thus 
prevents  any  change  or  further  drying  in  the  ordinary  way, 
so  that  if  gold  is  laid  on  soft  coats  of  paint,  they  will  not 
all  harden  off  together,  but  will  go  on  working  under  the 
gold,  expanding  and  contracting,  and  will  ultimately  ruin 
the  gold  leaf. 

Bronzes.  Bronzes  have  the  same  qualities  as  the  baser 
leaf  metals,  and  the  same  precautions  must  be  observed  in 
using  them.  They  must  not  be  mixed  with  oil  varnishes,  or 
oil  mediums,  but  can  be  put  upon  japanners'  gold  size,  or 
upon  any  spirit  varnishes  in  powder  form.  They  can  be 
mixed  and  ajDplied  as  liquids  in  any  spirit  varnish,  or  in  size 
or  gum,  though  the  tendency  of  gum  to  become  acid  some- 


170  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

times  turns  the  bronze  black.  In  bronzing  with  the  powder, 
the  size,  usually  japanners'  gold  size,  is  applied,  and  when 
tacky,  the  bronze  is  dusted  on  with  a  rabbit's  foot,  a  wad 
of  close  cloth,  or  a  chamois  leather  pad.  The  bronze  is  pro- 
tected by  a  thin  coat  of  lacquer,  and  then  varnished  in  the 
ordinary  way. 

Bronzing  should  never  be  varnished  over  with  oil  cupal 
varnishes,  as  it  will  rajndly  lose  color  and  oxidize  if  so 
varnished,  some  of  the  commoner  house-painters'  oak  var- 
nishes have  so  little  oil  in  them  that  this  eft'ect  does  not  fol- 
low rapidl}'.  If  metals,  silver,  or  gold  be  sized  with  a  clear 
jelly  of  gelatine  size,  or  thinly  lacquered,  they  may  be  var- 
nished with  any  kind  of  varnish,  as  the  interleaf  of  size  will 
stop  the  direct  action  of  the  varnish  upon  the  metal. 

Bronzing  is  sometimes  used  over  paint  to  give  the  effect 
of  metal.  Thus  a  piece  of  iron  casting  may  be  painted 
green  or  copper  color,  and  then  the  highest  portions  of  the 
relief  touched  with  bronze.  This  is  done  by  coating  the 
article  with  japanners'  varnish  or  gold  size,  and  when 
tacky  dusting  over  a  little  powder  bronze,  which  can  be 
applied  by  a  piece  of  cloth  or  velvet  rubbed  in  the  powder. 
The  bronze  should  not  be  applied  to  the  bare  oil  paint. 
The  color  of  the  bronze  must  bear  a  correct  relation  to  the 
color  of  the  paint  used. 

Lacquer  for  Metals.  Various  lacquers  are  used  to  give 
gold  or  metal  a  different  color.  Any  lacquer  can  be  made 
from  an  ounce  of  good  shellac  dissolved  in  half  a  pint  of 
spirits  of  Avine,  and  tinted  with  saffron,  turmeric,  sanders, 
or  other  dye-woods,  dragon 's  blood,  or  any  of  the  aniline 
powders.  The  most  useful  colorings  are  turmeric  and  drag- 
on's blood,  a  colorless  lacquer  may  be  used,  and  the  tinting 
done  by  the  use  of  transparent  oil  colors  in  varnish. 

The  house  painter  often  has  to  re-lacquer  small  brass 
fittings.  These  are  better  gilded  and  thou  coated  Avith 
French  polish  or  a  good  lacquer.  This  does  not  apply  to 
bandies,  but  to  certain  hooks,  curtain  pole  ends  and  brackets, 


GILDING  171 

bell  pulls,  etc.,  clean,  and  give  them  a  coat  of  patent  knot- 
ting before  gold  sizing,  gold  size  with  japanners',  and 
gild  in  the  usual  way. 

Preparing  Open  Grain  Wood  and  Stone  for  Gilding.  To 
prepare  rough  cut  deal,  ash,  open  grain  oak,  or  stone,  foi' 
gilding,  give  a  couple  of  coats  of  French  polish  and  spirit 
varnish  in  equal  parts,  or  two  coats  of  patent  knotting,  then 
gold  size  in  the  usual  manner.  Japan  gold  size  sometimes 
works  cloggy  in  fine  lettering.  When  working  indoors  at 
line  gold  lettering  on  a  black  ground,  if  the  Japan  size  be 
stood  in  a  jar  of  hot  water  it  keeps  fluid  and  works  ex- 
tremely well,  setting  quickly  when  once  on  the  work.  It 
must  not  be  too  hot.  A  pot  may  be  filled  with  hot  water 
and  the  size  in  a  smaller  pot  stood  in  it. 


GRAINING. 

The  art  of  graining  consists  in  working  transparent  color 
over  an  oil  ground,  the  ground  being  of  a  color  that  will 
match  the  lightest  tone  in  the  markings  on  the  wood.  The 
transparent  colors  used  for  the  general  markings  match 
the  colors  in  the  real  wood,  and  are  applied  with  large 
brushes,  the  effect  is  further  assisted  by  still  darker  touches 
of  color,  put  on  here  and  there  in  places  with  smaller  brushes. 
To  produce  a  good  piece  of  graining,  the  most  important 
matters  to  be  considered  are,  the  ground  on  which  the 
graining  is  to  be  worked,  the  figuring,  the  over-graining,  the 
glazing,  the  tools,  the  state  of  the  color  and  the  manner  of 
applying  it,  and,  because  there  are  several  modes  of  pro- 
cedure, the  particular  process  to  be  adopted.  There  are 
three  different  kinds  of  graining — namely,  water  color  (dis- 
temper), spirit  color,  and  oil  color,  outdoor  work  is  done  in 
oil,  water  color  is  used  for  facility  and  for  fine  gradation, 
and  spirit  color  for  quickness.  The  several  methods  are 
frequently  combined,  as,  for  instance,  water  color  over  oil, 
in  order  that  the  second  coat  of  the  figure  may  not  disturb 
the  first.  If  water  color  is  used  over  water  color,  the  under 
coat  must  be  fixed  with  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  varnish 
and  turpentine. 

It  is  assumed  that  the  reader  already  is  acquainted  with 
the  practical  elementary  stages  of  brush  work,  as  the  plain 
painting  is  termed,  and  that  he  is  capable  of  producing  a 
good  ground  upon  which  the  graining  can  be  worked.  The 
ground  of  the  graining  is  very  important,  for  although  a 
skilful  workman  could  work  on  a  white  or  even  a  poorly 
constituted  ground,  yet  he  could  do  far  superior  work  on  a 
ground  of  good  tone  and  in  good  condition.  The  ground 
is  a  technical  term  involving  two  distinct  ideas,  surface  and 

172 


GRAINING  173 

color.  A  properly  prepared  surface  should  be  free  from 
grittiness,  from  coarse  brush  marks,  from  dents,  etc.,  and 
should  be  hard  and  smooth.  The  amount  of  gloss  depends 
on  the  proportions  of  linseed  oil  and  turpentine  in  the 
grounding  paint,  and  is  a  matter  for  individual  preference, 
some  grainers  jjrefer  a  groundwork  of  a  brilliant  bright  tone, 
trusting  to  the  brown  glazing  color  to  break  it  down,  others 
prefer  to  have  the  ground  of  a  dull  color,  and  work  a 
brighter  tone  of  graining  color  over  it.  Some  prefer  the 
color  mixed  up  with  three  parts  oil  to  one  of  turps,  others 
prefer  the  color  to  be  made  up  of  half  turps  and  half  oil. 
The  former  gives  a  hard  gloss  suitable  for  oil-graining  with 
steel  combs.  For  water  or  distemper  gi-aining,  more  tur- 
pentine, giving  a  dull  gloss,  is  better,  for  this  class  of  work 
two  coats  of  varnish  are  ultimately  required,  while,  if  the 
ground  is  hard  and  oily,  only  one  coat  of  varnish  is  neces- 
sary, as  the  varnish  binds  the  pigment  when  the  water  has 
evaporated.  A  good  ground  cannot  be  obtained  by  the  use 
of  dead  or  flatting  paint,  there  must  always  be  sufficient  oil 
in  the  color  to  allow  it  to  be  thoroughly  spread  and  laid  off, 
and  so  ensure  the  absence  of  coarse  brush  marks.  The 
color  of  the  ground  is  determined  by  the  wood  about  to  be 
imitated.  Correct  judgment  as  to  the  combined  effect  of 
ground  and  graining  colors  is  the  result  of  much  careful 
observation  and  experience. 

The  preparation  of  the  woodwork  has  been  already  men- 
tioned. Rough  and  imperfectly  got-up  woodwork  is  often 
grained  in  imitation  of  oak,  the  graining  being  supposed  to 
hide  the  defects,  but  to  obtain  a  serviceable  grained  surface, 
a  smooth  ground  is  essential.  Ordinary  woodwork  as  it 
comes  in  its  rough  state  from  the  carpenter  can  be  filled  up 
or  levelled  in  the  following  manner:  First,  well  rub  it  down 
with  glass-paper,  and  then  remove  the  dust  with  a  painter's 
dusting  brush.  Coat  any  knots  with  the  transparent  var- 
nish known  as  patent  knotting,  when  this  is  dry,  prime 
the  wood  with  a  paint  made  by  mixing  together  three  parts 


174  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

of  white-lead,  one  part  of  red-lead,  and  one-tenth  part  of 
liquid  driers,  then  dilute  with  three  parts  of  linseed  oil  and 
one  part  or  less  of  turpentine.  When  this  priming  is  dry, 
putty  up  any  nail-holes  and  allow  the  work  to  stand  un- 
touched for  a  day  or  two.  The  next  coat  should  contain 
much  less  turpentine  and  no  red-lead,  and  should  be  stained 
a  few  shades  darker  than  the  desired  ground,  this  being 
obtained  by  the  application  of  a  third  coat.  Strain  the 
paints  before  using,  and  lightly  glass-paper  down  between 
each  coat. 

Oil  paint  is  apt,  after  a  time,  to  present  a  greasy  surface, 
so  that  it  will  ciss,  even  if  oil  color  is  laid  over  it,  that  is  to 
say,  the  color  will  not  lie,  but  will  curl  up  into  small  beads. 
This  tendenc}'.  as  well  ;is  tlio  wnnt  of  aflinity  between  water 
and  oil,  makes  it  necessary  to  prepare  the  ground  for  the 
reception  of  the  graining  color.  This  ma}'  be  done  in  sev- 
eral ways.  A  small  quantity  of  drj-  whiting  may  be  rubbed 
over  the  work  with  a  piece  of  flannel,  and  the  superfluous 
whiting  brushed  awaj',  or  the  work  may  be  brushed  over 
with  weak  ale  to  Avhich  a  small  quantity  of  whiting  has  been 
added,  or  with  water  mixed  with  fuller's  earth,  or  stale 
beer  alone,  or  even  size,  may  be  used,  the  liquid  being 
allowed  to  dry  before  the  graining  is  begun,  but  care  should 
always  be  taken  not  to  use  too  great  a  quantity  or  too  strong 
a  solution.  Anything  of  a  solid  nature,  such  as  whiting, 
should  be  cleared  away  when  it  has  accomplished  its  pur- 
pose. The  ground  should  be  slightly  glossy,  and  should  not 
be  glass-papered,  especially  for  light  woods,  as  the  marks  of 
the  papering  are  liable  to  show. 

Properly  prepared  graining  color  works  freely  and  cleanly 
not  only  from  the  brush  but  during  the  subsequent  manipula- 
tion, it  also  combines  the  correct  and  particular  color  with 
the  transparency  of  the  pigment  which,  when  laid  upon  the 
ground,  is  to  imitate  the  color  of  the  genuine  polished  wo*^ 
This  matter  of  combined  color  eflect  must  be  thoroughly 
grasped,    as   it    is   the    chief  working   principle   upon   which 


GRAINING  175 

the  imitation  of  wood  is  based.  An  opaque  body  grain- 
ing paint  wliich  shall  give  the  appearance  of  oak,  without 
necessitating  the  two  distinct  grounding  and  graining  pro- 
cesses, is  impossible.  As  soon  as  white-lead  is  mixed  with 
t];e  pigments  from  which  the  graining  color  is  made,  the 
transparency  and  richness  of  the  latter  are  decreased,  whilst 
the  graining  color  alone,  being  only  a  stain,  lacks  the  pre- 
servative qualities  of  a  white-lead  or  body  preparation. 

The  graining  colors  should  be  purchased  in  bulk,  and  if 
to  be  used  merely  for  practice,  obtain  such  cheap  grainers 
and  stainers  as  burnt  umber,  burnt  sienna,  Vandyke  brown, 
Venetian  reds,  Italian  ochre,  and  after  a  little  experience 
the  madder  lakes,  scarlets  and  Prussian  blues  may  be  pro- 
cured. Graining  colors  should  be  of  the  best,  and  in  every 
case  be  ground  very  fine,  since  they  '  are  always  used  as 
transparent  colors. 

The  following  remarks  apply  to  grounds  and  colors  for  oak 
graining.  The  basis  of  all  oil  ground  colors  for  oak  grain- 
ing should  be  white-lead  ground  in  linseed  oil.  Any  colored 
pigments  that  may  be  added  to  obtain  a  dark  ground  can  be 
considered  only  as  stains,  as  none  of  them  furnishes  the 
opacity,  solidity,  or  durability,  for  all  of  which  qualities 
white-lead  is  so  noted.  Of  course,  if  a  very  dark  ground, 
such  as  that  for  antique  oak,  is  required,  not  so  much  white- 
lead  is  used  in  its  comi^osition  as  for  light  or  medium 
grounds.  It  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  say  that  the  grainer 
who  relies  on  the  use  of  white-lead  to  obtain  a  good  ground 
seldom  produces  those  unnaturally  bright  and  garish  grounds 
that  always  offend  the  trained  eye.  As  a  general  rule,  in 
making  grounding  paint,  sufficient  white-lead  for  the  pur- 
pose, together  with  one-tenth  the  quantity  of  patent  driers, 
should  be  broken  up  in  linseed  oil,  and  the  staining  pigments 
added  and  well  mixed  in.  The  paint  should  be  strained 
through  a  mesh,  and  then  thinned  to  a  working  consistency 
with  about  two  parts  of  linseed  oil  to  one  part  turpen- 
tine.    This  gives  a  good  gloss,  but  if  a  ground  is  required 


176  CYCLOPEDIA   OF  PAINTING 

which  may  be  quickly  grained,  the  proportions  of  the  lin. 
seed  oil  and  turpentine  should  be  reversed. 

The  following  are  recipes  for  ordinary  oak  grounds :  Foi 
light  oak,  use  a  mixture  of  white-lead  and  yellow  ochre 
(sometimes  with  a  touch  of  chrome  to  brighten  it).  Oxford 
ochre  and  Venetian  red  are  used  for  dark  oak,  with  the 
addition  of  burnt  umber,  and  raw  sienna  for  still  darker 
wood.  A  rich  tone  of  buff,  given  by  vermilion  and  chrome, 
is  sometimes  adopted.  A  buff  ground  is  made  with  7 
pounds  white-lead,  V2  pound  of  yellow  ochre  ground  in  oil, 
1/^  pound  of  driers,  mixed  with  linseed  oil  2  parts  and  tur- 
pentine 1  part,  and  stained  when  thin  enough  for  use. 
White-lead,  stained  with  orange  chrome,  and  thinned  with 
one  raw  oil  to  two  turps.  Mix  1  pound  of  white-lead,  2 
ounces  of  patent  driers,  and  2  ounces  of  Oxford  ochre. 
Thin  with  oil  and  turpentine. 

As  regards  the  graining  color,  for  water  color  work,  it 
should  be  ground  up  vei'j'  fine  in  beer,  and  kept  in  a  bottle 
tightly  corked,  when  used  it  should  be  thinned  with  weak 
beer  and  water.  A  permanent  water  color  graining  is  ob- 
tained by  melting  gum  arabic  in  hot  water,  and  mixing  enough 
of  the  gum  with  the  graining  color  to  bind  it.  If  the  gum 
is  in  excess  it  will  cause  cracks.  Softness,  flatness,  variety 
and  permanence  are  produced  by  this  method.  The  grain 
of  oak  is  frequently  done  in  spirit  color.  Gilders'  whiting 
is  ground  up  stiffly  in  turpentine,  and  stained  to  the  re- 
quired tint  with  burnt  umber  and  raw  sienna,  which  are 
also  ground  up  stiffly  in  turpentine.  A  small  quantity  of 
japanners'  gold  size  and  boiled  linseed  oil  or  ordinary 
varnish  is  now  added  to  bind  it,  and  it  is  then  thinned 
with  turpentine  and  strained  through  a  piece  of  muslin  into 
a  large-mouthed  pot,  when  it  is  ready  for  use.  If  too  much 
varnish  is  used,  the  color  will  set  so  quickly  as  to  be  un- 
manageable. Only  a  small  portion  of  graining,  just  enough 
to  allow  for  combing,  can  be  done  at  a  time,  as  the  color 
dries   so   quickly.     The    lights   arc    taken    out   with    a   fitch, 


GRAINING  177 

dipped  in  a  fairly  strong  solution  of  soda  in  water  or  in 
turpentine.  Both  the  soda  and  the  turpentine  should  be 
stained  with  a  little  burnt  sienna,  otherwise  the  markings 
will  be  too  staring.  Hold  in  the  left  hand  a  rag  on  which 
to  wipe  the  fitch,  so  as  to  prevent  the  fluid  running  down 
and  spoiling  the  work.  Spirit  graining  should  not  be  var- 
nished for  twenty-four  hours,  and  even  then  must  not  be 
rubbed  too  much. 

When  oil  is  the  medium  in  oak  color,  raw  sienna,  with 
burnt  umber  or  Vandyke  brown,  according  to  the  depth  of 
color  required,  is  finely  ground  in  linseed  oil.  Patent  driers 
is  then  added,  this  acting  as  a  megilp,  giving  substance  or 
body  to  the  color;  I/2  ounce  of  patent  driers  to  1  pound  of 
color,  mixed  with  equal  joarts  of  oil  and  turpentine,  is  the 
proportion.  Without  this  megilp  the  color  will  be  flat  and 
uninteresting.  To  get  the  ribbed  appearance  of  the  grain 
of  oak,  beeswax,  soft  soap,  lime-water  and  rain-water  are 
often  used  when  patent  driers  is  not  available.  The  meth- 
od of  preparation  is  as  follows :  Wax  must  be  thoroughly 
incorporated  with  oil  by  shredding  the  wax  into  an  earthen- 
ware receptacle,  covering  it  with  linseed  oil  and  stirring 
Avith  a  red-hot  poker  till  the  wax  is  thoroughly  dissolved; 
then  add  the  staining  color,  well  mix  and  dilute  it  with  tur- 
pentine. An  excess  of  wax  with  the  color  will  cause  the 
combing  to  stand  up  too  much.  In  the  natural  wood  the 
markings  are  depressions,  but  in  the  graining  they  appear 
as  ridges  of  color.  The  markings  should  not,  therefore, 
stand  up  more  than  is  absolutely  necessary  to  produce  the 
desired  effect.  The  lines  must  to  a  certain  extent  be  dis- 
tinct, although  softened  down  in  places.  Soft  soap  must 
be  broken  up  with  either  patent  driers  or  whiting,  a)ul 
thinned  with  boiled  oil,  or  it  may  be  made  up  into  a  lather 
with  plain  water,  and  in  this  state  mixed  with  oil  color. 
The  objection  to  soft  soap  is  its  alkaline  nature,  all  alka- 
lies weakening  and  destroying  paint.  Lime  must  be  slaked 
in  water,  about  2  pounds  of  lime  and  1  gallon   of  water, 


178  CYCLOPEDIA  OF   PAINTING 

allowed  to  settle,  and  the  clear  liquid  poured  off  for  use. 
Sufficient  lime-water  is  mixed  with  the  graining  color  and 
well  beaten  up.  But  graining  by  this  method  is  liable  to 
fade,  the  lime  desti'ojang  the  color,  and  causing  the  paint 
to  crack.  Rain-water  used  alone  and  beaten  up  thoroughly 
with  the  color  has  many  advantages;  it  does  not  exert  in- 
jurious action,  the  color  does  not  spread  and  as  soon  as  the 
color  has  set  the  water  evaporates. 

The  best  megilp,  seldom,  however,  used  for  graining  on 
account  of  the  expense,  is  made  from  mastic  varnish  and 
boiled  oil.  To  make  it,  pour  the  boiled  oil  into  the  varnish, 
and  use  the  jelly  formed  by  the  mixture.  As  a  hard  and 
fast  rule  cannot  be  laid  down  for  mixing  graining  colors, 
the  proportions  depending  on  the  conditions  under  which 
the  work  is  done,  the  colors  should  always  be  tested  before 
use.  The  color  should  rub  out  cleanly,  easily  spread,  and 
the  lines  left,  by  the  comb  should  keep  their  place,  not  run- 
ning into  each  other  or  settling  down.  A  method  of  oak 
graining  now  seldom  practiced  consisted  in  first  laying  the 
markings  in  with  a  flat,  square-edged  fitch,  dipped  in  a  mix- 
ture of  sweet  oil  and  beeswax.  When  this  was  dry,  the 
graining  colors,  made  up  with  weak  beer,  were  applied. 
When  the  work  had  thoroughly  dried,  the  beeswax  was 
carefully  washed  off  with  turpentine.  Ordinary  graining 
eolor  is  best  made  with  about  equal  parts  of  oil  and  turpen- 
tine, to  which  is  added  paste  driers,  one-eighth  of  the  whole 
bulk,  with  sufficient  coloring  matter. 

The  coloring  pigments  used  as  ingredients  of  all  oak 
grounding  and  graining  paints  may  be  briefly  classified  as 
either  opaque  or  transparent.  Of  the  former  class  are  the 
chromes,,  yellow  ochres  and  Venetian  red,  which  should  be. 
used  only  in  making  stains  for  grounding  paints.  Raw  and 
burnt  sienna,  or  terra  di  sienna,  raw  and  burnt  Turkey 
umber  and  vandyke  brown  may  be  considered  as  being 
transparent,  though  the  quality  is  possessed  by  them  in  a 
varying  degree.     They   are   sufficiently   translucent   to   give 


GRAINING  179 

due  effect  to  any  colored  ground  upon  which  they  may  be 
superimposed.  For  purposes  of  glazing  and  overgraining, 
ivory  and  blue-blacks  and  Prussian  and  indigo  blue  may  be 
used,  though  the  two  latter  are  required  seldom. 

Prussian  blue  is  a  good  working  and  staining  color,  and 
a  quick  drier.  Venetian  red  is  cheap  but  permanent,  and 
must  be  procured  ready  ground  in  oil.  It  is  useful  for 
grounds. 

Lemon  and  orange  chromes,  when  of  best  quality,  are 
chromates  of  lead.  They  are  brilliant,  have  good  body 
and  covering  power,  and  make  good  tints  when  mixed  with 
white.  When  used  in  oil  they  must  be  protected  by  var- 
nishing, especially  if  exposed  to  impure  air,  which  in  time 
will  turn  them  black.  The  chromes  destroy  Prussian  and 
some  other  blues.  The  yellow  chromes  are  made  in  three 
shades;  the  fourth  shade  is  the  orange  chrome,  a  deep  rich 
color.  The  shades  are  varied  by  increasing  the  chromate 
for  deep  orange,  and  lessening  it  for  the  pale  yellows.  These 
colors  are  injured  by  damp  and  impure  air,  sulphur  fumes 
and  hydrogen,  but  the  orange  chrome  is  said  to  last  better 
than  orange  oxide  of  lead. 

Chrome  of  either  middle  or  orange  tint,  may  be  useful  to 
a  slight  extent  in  staining  gi'ound  colors,  when  very  bright 
and  rich  imitations  are  required.  Generally,  however, 
chrome  conduces  neither  to  good  coloring  nor  to  the  attain- 
ment of  a  natural  woody  effect.  The  "chrome-yellow  tint 
sometimes  forms  a  ground  for  light  oak,  whilst  orange-red 
is  used  for  medium  oak. 

White-lead,  the  basis  of  all  graining  grounds,  is  one  of  the 
most  frequently  used  pigments,  and  also  one  of  the  most 
faulty.  It  is  made  by  suspending  rolls  of  ordinary  thin 
sheet  lead  over  malt  vinegar  or  pyroligneous  acid,  in  close 
vessels,  the  evaporation  from  the  acid  being  kept  up  by  a 
steam  bath  underneath.  The  lead  is  thus  reduced  to  a 
white  powder  ready  for  being  ground  with  linseed  oil  into 
a  paste.     White   lead   improves   by   keeping  and  for  gop4 


180  CYCLOPEDIA  OF   PAINTING 

work  should  be  stocked  for  at  least  twelve  months  after 
purchase.  Very  pale  and  old  linseed  oil  should  be  used  in 
the  thinning,  otherwise  it  will  probably  soon  discolor.  It 
is,  however,  about  the  best  pigment  for  preserving  wood 
from  the  effects  of  the  weather.  Zinc  white  is  an  oxide  of 
zinc.  It  does  not  discolor  and  is  a  very  pure  pigment.  It 
is  a  substitute  for  white-lead,  but  is  not  so  employed  in  the 
practice  of  graining. 

Vermilion  is  used  only  in  the  most  exceptional  cases;  it 
can  be  had  as  a  fine  dry  powder,  free  from  grit,  and  is  a 
very  brilliant  color  in  oil.  The  best  quality  only  is  perma- 
nent, and  that  is  a  sulphuret  of  mercury.  Chinese  red,  or 
vermilion,  is  of  a  deep  crimson  tone,  but  has  bad  covering 
power,  and,  unless  well  protected,  will  soon  fade  under  the 
action  of  light  and  impure  air. 

Indigo  possesses  great  body,  and  is  a  good  glazing  color. 
It  is  not  very  durable  and  is  injured  by  impure  air. 

Ivory  black  is  made  by  placing  ivory  dust  in  a  covered 
crucible  exposed  to  a  great  heat.  An  inferior  color  known 
as  bone  black  is  made  by  treating  bones  in  a  similar  way. 
Ivory  black,  the  deepest  and  purest  of  the  blacks,  being 
somewhat  hard,  requires  very  careful  grinding,  and  unless 
ground  very  fine  is  useless.  It  is  best  ground  in  turpentine, 
and  diluted  for  use  with  turpentine,  gold  size  and  a  little 
varnish.  In  drying  it  will  become  dull,  so  that  it  should 
not  be  used  unless  it  is  afterwards  to  be  varnished.  If 
thinned  down  too  much  with  turpentine  it  will  not  bind,  so 
that  when  the  varnish  is  applied  it  will  rub  off  onto  the  rest 
of  the  work  and  spoil  the  whole.  Ivory  black,  when  pur- 
chased unground,  resembles  drops  and  is  sometimes  called 
drop  black,  but  bone  black  is  prepared  in  the  same  way. 

The  various  ochres,  Oxford,  yellow  and  Italian,  are 
u-sed  only  in  the  composition  of  grounding  paint,  and  never 
in  graining  color.  Really,  commercial  yellow  ochre  is  the 
only  one  of  this  class  of  pigni(>nt  there  is  need  to  use,  since 
the  addition  of  a  little  Venetian  red  will  give  any  warmer 


GRAINING  181 

tint  desired.  This  latter  tint,  a  kind  of  burnt  ochre,  can 
alone  be  commended  for  obtaining  warmth  in  grounds. 
Yellow  ochre  is  not  a  very  bright  color;  it  is  best  purchased 
in  tubes,  otherwise  it  is  not  thoroughly  ground.  Ochre  is 
an  earth  found  in  most  countries,  and  is  of  all  shades,  from 
the  wai'm  yellow  of  the  Oxford  ochre  to  the  pale  straw  yel- 
low of  the  French  earth.  The  ochres  are  not  liable  to 
change  through  any  chemical  action,  and  may  therefore  be 
considered  permanent. 

Umbers,  natural  pigments  consisting  of  a  mixture  of  clays 
and  brown  hematite,  are  valuable  on  account  of  their  trans- 
parency and  of  their  good  drying  qualities  when  in  oil;  the 
latter  qualities  are  so  pronounced  that  umbers  may  be  em- 
ployed as  drying  agents.  Raw  umber  is  unsurpassed  as  a 
graining  color  for  light  imitations,  whilst  burnt  umber  may 
be  used  for  antique  oaks  from  light  to  the  darkest.  In 
mixing  grounds,  also,  umbers  are  invaluable.  Raw  umber 
does  not  injure  colors  with  which  it  is  mixed.  Burnt  umber 
is  very  permanent,  and  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  Van- 
dyke brown. 

Raw  sienna  is  the  yellow  pigment  used  for  very  rich  and 
light  oak,  but,  properly,  should  seldom  be  required,  as  de- 
cided yellow  and  bright  tones  are  not  characteristics  of  real 
oak.  The  siennas  are  used  in  oak  colors  to  produce  a  forced 
richness.  Similar  in  natui'e  and  preparation  to  the  umbers, 
they  are  more  ti'ansparent,  but  lack  the  natural  diying  quali- 
ties of  umber  when  used  in  oil.  Siennas  are  used  to  pro- 
duce those  imitations  which  are  obtained  by  the  use  of  pig- 
ments ground  in  water;  they  are  useful  for  graining  in  ma- 
hogany, maple  and  walnut.  Raw  sienna  is  rather  an  im- 
pure yellow,  but  has  more  body  than  the  ochres  and  is  also 
more  transparent.  By  burning  it  becomes  burnt  sienna, 
which  has  similar  properties.  Burnt  sienna  is  a  rich,  trans- 
parent and  red-brown  pigment;  gold  size  may  be  used  as  a 
drier  with  it.     It  dries  better  than  raw  sienna,  and  is  verj' 


182  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

permanent,  as  it  is  not  liable  to  change  by  the  action  of 
light  and  oxygen,  or  by  damp  and  impure  air. 

Vandyke  brown,  a  transparent  earth  pigment,  is  a  very 
slow  drier,  and,  if  used  in  oil,  requires  to  be  diluted  with  a 
drying  agent.  It  has  a  dark  color,  inclining  to  neither  yel- 
low nor  red,  but  yet  extremely  I'ich  and  deep.  In  oak  grain- 
ing, it  is  generallj'  ground  in  water,  its  color  being  warmer 
and  richer  than  when  used  in  oil.  It  is  the  principal  pig- 
ment used  in  overgraining  oak.     It  is  a  bog  earth. 

Neutral  blacks  and  blues,  previously  mentioned,  are  also 
to  some  extent  transi^arent.  Blue-black  in  conjunction  with 
Vandyke  brown  is  largely  used  for  overgraining  oak.  Black 
enters  into  the  composition  of  the  dark  grounds  for  an- 
tique oak.  The  effects  of  transparent  blues  may  be  regard- 
ed by  some  grainers  as  questionable,  but  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  richness  of  color  in  woods  is  only  a  matter  of 
compari.son  and  contrast,  and,  therefore,  if  instead,  of  forc- 
ing the  color  values  by  bright  grounds,  bright  graining 
color  and  rich  overgraining,  some  contrasting  cool  tones  are 
introduced,  it  is  possible  to  obtain  more  natural  color 
variety  and  yet  retain  the  subdued  contrasts  of  the  real  oak. 
Prussian  and  indigo  blues  are  vastly  different  when  ground 
in  v.-ater  from  what  they  are  in  oil;  whilst  the  tints  are 
considerably  mellowed  by  the  final  coating  of  copal  or  oak 
varnish.  The  first  stages  of  oak  graining  should  be  worked 
in  subdued  tones  rather  than  in  false  bright  ones,  and  any 
desirable  enrichment  should  be  left  for  the  glazing  and 
overgraining  to  accomplish  in  preference  to  struggling  in 
the  final  phase  to  modify  early  faults. 

Megilp  is  added  to  oil  graining  color  to,  ensure  that  the 
latter  shall  not  spread  when  combed.  In  ordinary  and 
cheap  oak  graining  an  excess  of  the  drjung  agent  is  made 
to  serve  the  purpose,  but  the  megilp  generally  acknowledged 
to  give  the  most  satisfaction  is  a  preparation  of  beeswax. 
A  few  ounces  of  pure  wax  is  shredded  and  dissolved,  by 
the  application  of  heat,  in  linseed  oil ;  add  to  the  dissolved 


GRAINING  183 

beeswax  1  pint  each  of  linseed  oil  and  oil  of  turpentine,  1 
gill  of  patent  dryer  and  the  pigments  ground  in  oil.  The 
wax  must  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  other  constituents, 
or  the  drying  qualities  of  the  color  will  be  affected.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  wax  is  not  added  as  a  drying 
agent,  but  solely  to  make  the  color  more  amenable  to  the 
dividing  and   wiping-out   action  of  the   combs. 

Distemper  graining  pigments  are  bound  by  the  use  of 
beer.  Vandyke  brown,  however,  does  not  require  a  binder 
for  overgraining  in  water,  nor  do  the  siennas  very  often. 
When  using  black  or  the  cool  tones,  either  alone  or  in  com- 
bination with  warmer  colors,  a  little  beer  is  necessary,  be- 
cause black  has  no  binding  power;  if  mixed  with  Vandyke 
brown  in  equal  proportions  no  binder  will  be  required,  but  it 
is  always  best  to  ensure  that  the  overgraining  will  not  work 
up  when  the  varnish  is  applied.  In  finishing  antique  oak 
in  black  alone,  the  wash  must  be  strong  in  beer;  for  mixed 
washes,   one-half  beer  is  a  safe  proportion. 

For  very  light  oak,  the  ground  cclor  is  made  from  white- 
lead  paint,  and  is  tinted  to  a  decided  cream  with  yellow 
ochre.  The  graining  color  may  be  stained  with  raw  sienna 
and  raw  umber,  or  the  latter  alone ;  the  work  may  be  pver- 
grained  in  water  with  Vandyke  brown  and  Aveak  blue-black, 
or  indigo. 

Ordinarily  light  oak  requires  a  clean  buff  ground,  stained 
by  ochre,  and  occasionally  a  touch  of  Venetian  red  or'  um- 
ber. Raw  umber  is  suitable  for  the  graining  color,  though 
burnt  umber  gives  a  richer  cast.  For  the  overgraining,.  Van- 
dyke brown   and  blue-black  are   used. 

Medium  oak  looks  best  on  a  warm  buff,  the  red  and  lochre 
therein  being  slightly  toned  down  with  umber.  Burnt  um- 
ber alone  makes  a  good  grr.iuing  color,  whilst  Vafidyke 
brown  is  generally  sufficient  for  shading. 

The  grounds  for  dark  oak  are  best  made  with  three  pig- 
ments, ochre,  burnt  sienna  and  burnt  umber.  In  this  mix- 
ture  red   should  show  "prominently,   but   it   should^   together 


184 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    PAINTING 


GRAINING  185 

with  the  yellowness,  be  sobered  by  the  umber.  For  the 
graining  color,  burnt  umber  or  burnt  sienna  and  black  may 
be  used,  overgraining  with  washes  of  black  and  Vandyke 
brown,   used   either  separately  or  together. 

Very  dark  or  antique  oak  has  a  neutral  ground,  in  which 
the  red  and  yellow  are  subservient  to  the  umber  or  black 
tones.  The  graining  color  may  be  Vandyke  brown  or  ivory 
black  and  burnt  umber  in  oil;  blue-black  or  ivory  black  is 
used  for  the  overgraining.  An  overgraining  of  Vandyke 
alone  is  rich,  but  transjDarent  black  tones  are  more  charac- 
teristic of  real  antique  color.  A  little  Vandyke  toning  here 
and  there  is  an  improvement. 

The  use  of  the  graining  brushes  shown  in  Fig.  28  are 
given  in  the  accompanying  list: 

A — Badger  Blender,  set  in  wood. 

B — Camel-Hair  Cutter,  square. 

C — English  Bristle  Oval  Grainer. 

D— Thin  Bristle   Mottler. 

E — Bristle   Oak  Grainer. 

H — Bristle  Marbler. 

J — Angular  Bristle  Cutter. 

K — Bristle    Snake    Grainer. 

L — Bristle  Blender,  set  in  wood,  style  A. 

M — Knotted  Bristle  Grainer. 

S — Bristle  Pipe  Over  Grainer. 

In  oak  there  are  markings  of  little  black  lines,  varying 
in  length  from  Vs  to  %  inches,  and  in  width  from  1-32  inch  to 
a  point.  These  require  to  be  imitated,  and  nearly  every 
grainer  has  his  own  dodges  and  ways  of  working,  which 
are  to  him  the  best.  These  dark  markings  do  not  appear 
all  over  the  natural  woods,  but  only  in  places.  They  may 
be  produced  during  the  overgraining  by  drawing  a  coarse 
comb  down  the  whole  length  of  the  lines,  finishing  it  after- 
wards with  a  fine  steel  one,  leaving  long,  unbroken  lines. 
The  fine  steel  comb  carried  down  with  a  sharp,  wavy  mo- 


186 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 


tion  of  the.  hand  breaks  up  the  line.  The  badger  gives  the 
rest.  A  special  comb  is  made,  much  like  a  hairdresser's 
comb,  in  which  the  teeth  are  cut  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
cause  the  hair  to  divide  with  a  sharp  edge  at  the  point. 
This  pressed  on  an  overgraining  brush  will  divide  the  hairs, 
and  form  up  the  streaks  of  color  into  thin  lines. 

Another  method  of  producing  the  little  lines  in  oak  grain- 
in"'  is  to  use  an  oak  combing  roller.  The  rollers  are  used 
as  a  mechanical  means  of  printing  fine  lines  or  irregular 
lengths  on  veined  work,  producing  an  excellent  imitation  of 


Fig.  29.     Graining  Comb. 


the  natural  grain.  The  roller  has  to  be  fed  with  a  brush 
containing  the  color  while  rolling  the  work.  The  color  used 
is  a  little  blue-black  and  Vandyke  mixed  with  stale  beer. 

After  the  combing  is  done  and  the  paint  dry,  but  before 
varnishing,  a  little  black  jjaint  i.s  mixed  on  the  palette.  A 
short,  stiff,  hog-hair  brush  is  dabbed  vertically  upon  this, 
so  as  to  take  up  color  on  its  end  only.  The  brush  is  then 
held  in  the  operator's  left  hand  in  front  of  the  graining, 
with  the  handle  about  parallel  with  the  face  of  the  work 
and  a  few  inches  from  it.  By  taking  a  chip  of  wood  and 
-  drawing  back  the  hairs  with  it  so  that  they  will  spring  for- 


GRAINING 


187 


ward  again  suddenly,  a  number  of  splashes  or  small  dots 
of  black  are  sprinkled  over  the  work.  On  drawing  a  small 
badger  brush  downwards  over  the  dots,  they  are  drawn  out 
into  the  lines  noticed.  A  great  deal  of  oak  graining  is  done 
without   these  lines   appearing  in  it  at  all. 

Shading  or  glazing,  which  involves  the  use  of  oil  paint, 
alters  the  tone  or  color  of  either  new  or  old  oak  graining. 
Very  thin  color  is  spi'ead  over  those  parts  which  require  to 
be  deepened  and  enriched.     A  drying  mixture  is  stained  to 


Fig.  30.     Graining  Comb. 


the  required  color,  the  addition  of  megilp  not  being  neces- 
sary. In  matching  old  graining,  the  oil-glazing  process 
assists  in  getting  the  mellowness  which,  independent  of  the 
graining,  the  aging  of  varnish  imparts.  The  student  who 
has  mastered  the  foregoing  instructions  will  find  no  diffi- 
culty in  glazing  certain  portions  of  new  work,  in  convert- 
ing light  to  medium  oak  or  the  latter  to  dark  oak.  Occa- 
sionally the  glazing  principle  is  reversed,  inasmuch  as  a 
panel  is  rubbed  in,  figured  with  lights  and  half-lights,  but 
not   combed;   when   dry,  the  oil   color  is  again  spread,  and 


1S8 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  PAINTING 


then  combed  with  gutta-percha  or  cork  combs.  The  grain 
which  crosses  the  lights  is  wiped  out,  and  the  work  is  then 
overgi'ained  and  varnished.  This  method  is  too  tedious  for 
ordinai-y  purposes,  but  the  student  will  benefit  by  studying 
this  process,  with  which  far  more  natural  effects  can  be 
obtained  than  with  the  usual  methods. 

In  glazing  over  water  color,  allow  the  under  work  to  dry, 
then  apply  a  coat  of  turpentine  and  gold  size  mixed.  Glaz- 
ing is  frequently  executed  in  oil,  in  which  case  it  is  easy 
to  wipe  out  the  lights  wnth  a  rag.  When  the  glazing  is  done 
in  water  color,  the  lights  are  wiped  out  w'ith  a  damp  wash- 
leather,  a  sponge  being  sometimes  used  to  get  certain  de- 


Fig.    31.     Double   Line   Check   Graining   Roller. 


sired  effects.  Vandyke  brown,  because  of  its  richness  of 
tone  and  transparency,  is  the  color  generally  used  for  glaz- 
ing. It  is  toned  with  burnt  sienna  for  a  warm  tone,  and 
with  blue-black  for  a  cold  tone. 

For  oak  graining  a  wainscot  in  oil,  make  up  the  color 
for  the  ground  from  white-lead  tinted  with  small  quanti- 
ties of  yellow  ochre  and  burnt  sienna  to  match  the  lightest 
portion  of  the  grain.  If  the  oak  is  gray  in  tone,  a  touch  of 
blue  will  secure  the  desired  tint.  To  eveiy  2  pounds  of 
white-lead  add  1  ounce  of  driers.  When  the  work  is  dry, 
and  before  applying  the  graining  color,  rub  it  over  with 
fctale  beer  to  which  a  morsel  of  whiting  has  been  added.  For 


GRAINING  189 

combing,  take  raw  sienna  with  burnt  umber  or  Vandyke 
brown,  according  to  the  depth  of  color  required.  These 
colors  can  be  jDrocured  very  finely  ground  in  oil.  Mix  up 
the  colors  with  half  oil  and  half  turps,  and  add  1/2  ounce 
of  driers  to  each  pound  of  color  as  a  megilp  to  enable  the 
color  to  stand  the  combing.  The  overgraining  color  should 
be  gTound  in  water.  Mix  it  up  with  equal  quantities  of 
beer  and  water.  The  work  should  be  so  managed  that  the 
overgraining  will  not  contrast  with  the  under  work,  but 
will  darken  it.  A  slight  coat  of  turpentine,  with  which  is 
mixed  a  small  quantity  of  japanners'  gold  size,  added  after 
the  work  is  dry,  will  bind  down  the  overgrain  and  allow 
of  the  work  being  finally  glazed  with  Vandyke  brown  mixed 
with  oil. 


POLLARD  AND  KNOTTED  OAK  GRAINING' 

The  distemper  or  water  color  method  for  ordinary  oak 
graining  has  little  to  recommend  it.  For  graining  in  imi- 
tation of  pollard  oak,  however,  this  method  is  invaluable. 
Pollard,  or  rather  pollarded,  oak  belongs  to  the  same  natural 
class  of  oak  as  the  ordinary  figured  variety.  Its  sticking 
appearance  is  brought  about  by  combined  artificial  and  nat- 
ural means.  When  a  young  oak  tree  has  its  branches  lopped 
off,  and  provided  that  loppings  take  place  at  intervals  of  a 
few  years,  the  wood  that  comes  from  the  mature  tree  will 
show  clusters  of  knots — gnarled  and  twisted  grain,  with  in- 
tervening spaces  of  plainer  grain — in  which  condition  it  is 
known  as  pollard  oak.  The  imi^ortanee  of  working  from 
and  studying  natural  specimens  of  this  wood  cannot  be  too 
strongly  emphasized,  and  really  good  imitations  cannot  be 
executed  without  such  previous  study. 

The  brushes  required  for  this  imitation  are  a  large  thick 
mottler,  a  large  sash  tool  such  as  that  used  for  overgraining 
oak,  the  badger  softener,  a  piece  of  old  open  sponge,  a 
wash-leather,  medium  and  small  round  fitches,  sable  pencil, 
and  sable  overgrained  in  tube.  The  ground  color  should  be 
made  from  white-lead,  ochre,  a  little  Venetian  red,  and, 
when  the  graining  is  to  be  cjuiet,  a  little  burnt  umber. 

A  recipe  for  pollard  oak  ground  is  to  mix  together  2 
parts  of  ochre,  2  parts  of  orange  chrome,  1  part  of  Vene- 
tian red,  1  part  of  burnt  umber,  20  parts  of  white-lead, 
and  2  parts  of  patent  driers,  and  to  thin  for  use  with  equal 
parts   of  raw  linseed  oil  and  turpentine. 

In  imitating  pollard  oak,  there  are  two  slightly  diiTerent 
methods  of  treatment,  the  first  aiming  at  reproducing  the 
general  effect  of  the  wood  in  a  broad  and  natural  manner 
on  a  buff  oak  ground,  and   the   utlier  aiming  at   a   eonven- 

190 


POLLARD  AND  KNOTTED  OAK  GRAINING 


191 


tional  appearance,  the  ground  being  made  for  a  warm  and 
rich  final  tone,  such  as  the  real  wood  acquires  as  the  result 
of  polishing   and    age.     In   the   latter   treatment,   the   plain 


Fig.    32.      Wiping   Out   Figure    in   Oak   Graining. 


and  knotty  features  of  the  grain  are  more  distinctly  sep- 
arated and  the  details  are  shown  more  minutely. 

Mix  some   Vandyke  brown  with   beer  in  one  vessel  and 


1^ 


CYCLOPEDIA  OP  PAINTINO 


some  burnt  sienna  with  beer  in  another  vessel.  With  the 
large  sash  tool  rub  the  sienna  wash  into  the  panel,  which 
should  then  be  dabbed  and  rolled  with  a  damp  washleather, 


Fig.    33.      0;ik    Panel    Figurtil    ami    (Jveri^raiiud. 

to  give  an  irregular  but  connected  mottle.  This  mottle  is 
at  once  softened  by  the  badger  into  stronger  but  softer 
masses.     Put   in   clusters  of  knots,   which   should   have   an 


POLLARD  AND  KNOTTED  OAK  GRAINING 


193 


open  appearance,  with  a  stiff  round  fitch  dipped  into  Van- 
dyke brown  and  blue-black  mixed  with  beer.  When,  in  a 
few  minutes,  this  is  diy,  pass  the  mottler,  dipped  in  clean, 


Fig.   34.      Wiping  Out  Sap  in  Oak  Graining. 

cold  water,  over  the  work,  and,  with  the  sable  overgrainer 
charged  with  Vandyke  brown  wash,  put  in  fine  grain  which 
crosses  more   or   less  irregularly   the  plain  spaces  between 


194 


CYCLOPEDIA    OP    PAINTING 


the  knots.    "When  a  few  lines  of  grain  have  been  done,  each 
one  is  softened  by  the  badger  to  a  dark  edge,  and  when  all 


Fig.    35.     Oak   Panel    Finished. 


have   been   so   treated,   the   numerous   fine   veins   that  cross 
the   fainter  cross  grain   and   work  from  knot  to  knot,  are 


POLLARD  AND  KNOTTED  OAK  GRAINING  195 

painted  in  black  with  a  sable  joencil.  "When  the  work  has 
been  varnished  or  coated  with  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of 
japan,  gold  size  and  turpentine,  it  is  ready  for  the  final 
glazing  or  ovei'shading. 

This  glazing  is  a  similar  process  to  the  first  mottling, 
but  a  weak  beer  Avash  of  fine  blue-black  is  used  instead  of 
burnt  sienna.  The  wash  having  been  well  brushed  over  the 
panel,  the  sharp  lights  amongst  the  knots  are  wiped  out 
with  the  leather,  which  is  then  I'olled  over  the  work  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  give  more  depth  and  transparency.  If 
these  instructions  are  carefuUj'  followed  a  rich  and  natural 
woody  effect  will  be  obtained,  and  a  panel  so  treated  is  an 
admirable  foil  to  the  maiden  oak  stiles  of  a  door.  The 
work,  after  it  has  been  coated  with  copal  varliish  and  al- 
lowed to  stand  untouched  for  a  few  days,  is  ready  for  flat- 
ting or  felting  down  with  finest  pulverized  pumice-stone, 
rubbed  Avith  folt  and  water.  Finally,  a  good  coat  of  car- 
riage copal  varnish  gives  a  finish  that  will  last,  with  occa- 
sional re-varnishing  for  many  years. 

Another  imitation  of  pollard  oak,  based  on  the  same 
principle  as  that  just  described,  is  obtained  by  slightly  dif- 
ferent means.  The  ground,  which  is  rich  and  warm,  has  a 
strong  wash  of  burnt  sienna  rubbed  in.  The  dark  masses 
of  knots  are  dabbed  in  with  a  sponge  dabbed  in  the  Van- 
dyke wash  and  also  slightly  into  the  blue-black;  the  con- 
necting touches  of  dark  color  are  also  put  in.  The  color 
surrounding  the  knots  is  now  Avorked  Avith  the  mottler  in 
one  direction;  use  the  brush  at  right  angles  to  the  board, 
and  get  one  natural  lead  across  the  plain  spaces  from  one 
nest  to  another.  The  graining  surrounding  and  amongst 
the  knots  is  Avorked  Avith  the  round  stiff  fitch  into  the  same 
natural  curves  indicated  by  the  mottler;  anj'  knots  that 
appear  too  spotty  or  set  ai-e  opened  with  the  fitch.  When 
the  Avork  is  dry,  wet  it  Avith  beer  and  proceed  to  overgrain, 
using  the  thin  overgrainer  charged  Avith  a  thin  Vandyke 
wash  and  separated  into  divisions.     Soften  the  grain   to  a 


196 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   PAINTING 


dark  edge,  and  put  in  with  a  sable  pencil  dipped  in  a  blue- 
black  wash  the  fine  markings  which  cross  the  gi'ain.  The 
varnishing  or  binding  coating  is  now  given,  and  the  work 


Fig.   36.     PoUard  Oak  Graining — First  Stage. 

glazed  with  Vandyke  brown,  if  desired  full  and  rich,  or 
with  blue-black  if  the  warmth  requires  to  be  toned.  If 
beer  is  used  with  the  pigments,  the  work  can  always  be 
safely  wetted  to  ascertain  the  color  when  varnished.  Any 
slight  alterations  or  additions  can  therefore  easily  be  exe- 


POLLARD  AND  KNOTTED  OAK  GRAINING 


197 


cuted  by  rewetting  parts  that  may  have  dried  too  quickly. 

Pollard  oak  in  oil  is  grained  similarly  to  that  in  water. 

To  execute  pollard  oak  in  oil,  the  colors  required  are  umber, 

Vandyke  brown  and  raw  sienna,  ground  to  a  paste  in  boiled 


Fig.   37.     Pollard   Oak   Graining — Second   Stage. 

oil,  placed  on  separate  palettes,  and  thinned  for  use  with 
tuipentine.  With  a  large  hog-hair  tool  or  a  sponge,  give  a 
thin  coat  of  burnt  sienna  over  all  the  work,  and  before  it 
is   dry   dapple   it  over  in   various   directions  with   the   pre- 


198  CYCLOPEDIA    OF   PxVINTING 

pared  colors,  putting  plenty  of  color  where  the  knots  are  to 
be  shown.  The  best  tool  for  this  purpose  is  a  well-worn 
flat  mottler,  having  a  thin,  uneven  row  of  hairs,  and  it 
should  be  dipped  first  in  one  color  and  then  in  another.  To 
form  the  knots,  dip  the  brush  into  the  burnt  umber  made 
thin  with  turpentine.  The  knots  can  be  further  shaped  by 
taking  out  the  lights  witli  a  brush  moistened  with  turpen- 
tine. Small  fitches  rinsed  in  turpentine  will  take  out  sharp 
lights.  When  this  color  is  set,  put  on  in  a  curly  direction 
a  thin  glaze  of  burnt  umber.  There  must  be  enough  oil  in 
the  color  to  bind  and  keep  it  open  so  that  it  may  be  easily 
worked.  The  softener  must  be  liberally  used.  A  cork  is 
sometimes  useful  for  forming  knots  on  the  dark  part  of 
the  color,  and  it  should  be  twisted  with  the  finger  and  thumb 
to  give  the  light  and  shade.  The  heart  and  sap  of  the 
wood  should  be  taken  out  with  a  fitch,  in  the  same  way  as 
for  light  oak,  but  there  is  not  much  of  the  ordinary  figure 
in  pollard  oak.  A  flat  graining  brush,  well  filled  with  thin 
black,  will  produce  the  top  grain  in  a  curly  form,  and  fin- 
ally the  work  should  be  glazed  with  Vandyke  brown,  with 
a  touch  either  of  black  or  of  burnt  sienna.  The  knots  and 
dark  parts  may  be  finished  with  a  eamel-hair  pencil.  The 
glazing  may  be  done  either  in  oil-color  or  water-color.  If 
done  in  oil,  the  lights  can  be  wiped  out  with  rag.  The  color 
is  made  up  of  Vandyke  brown,  with  a  little  burnt  sienna 
or  black,  according  as  warm  or  cold  tones  are  required. 
Really,  final  glazing  is  the  same  as  in  the  distemper  proc- 
ess, except  that  the  colors  do  not  require  binding. 

Root  of  oak  is  similar  to  pollard  oak.  The  grain,  how- 
ever, instead  of  flowing  from  each  set  of  knots,  encircles 
the  masses  of  knots  in  irregular  rings  of  overgrain,  and  the 
dark  pencil  veins  are  more  in  evidence. 

Knotted  oak,  so  called,  combines  the  knotted  and  fig- 
ured portions  of  the  wood.  It  is  often  employed,  when 
graining  oak  in  oil,  for  the  panels,  with  ordinary  oak  stiles.  It 
has  a  warm  buff  ground,  containing  a  dash  of  umber,  whilst 


POLLARD  AND   KNOTTED   OAK  GRAINING  199 

for  the  graining  color  the  best  burnt  Turkey  umber  is  used. 
The  color  is  rubbed  in,  and  one  side  of  the  panel  combed, 
while  on  the  other  side  the  dark  knots  are  put  in  by  means 
of  a  stiff  titch  dipped  m  umber  and  drier.  With  another 
fitch  give  these  knots  and  the  surrounding  space  a  growing 
motion  towards  the  other  half  of  the  panel.  Now  put  in 
llie  fine  lights  across  the  slightly  combed  half  with  a  lead 
towards  the  knots,  and  then  work  up  the  knotted  half  with 
a  pencil  and  rag.  When  this  is  dry,  overgrain  with  a  dis- 
temper wash  of  Vandyke  brown. 


GRAINING  GROUNDS. 

Maple.  White  lead  tinted  with  a  very  little  venniliou 
and  about  an  equal  quantity  of  lemon  chrome.  Some  pre- 
fer yellow  ochre  only,  others  ochre  and  raw  umber  in  the 
proportion  of  four  ounces  ochre  and  one  ounce  umber  to 
thirty  pounds  of  lead. 

Medium  Oak.  Add  French  ochre  to  white  lead  in  the 
proportions  of  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  of  lead  to 
five  of  ochre.     Add  a  little  burnt  umber. 

Mahogany,  Dark.  Four  pounds  of  medium  Venetian  red, 
one  pound  of  orange  chrome  yellow  and  one  pound  of  burnt 
umber,  or  a  little  less  burnt  umber  may  be  used  according 
to  the  strength. 

Mahogany,  Light.  Mix  six  pounds  of  pure  white  lead 
with  one  pound  medium  Venetian  red  and  five  ounces  of 
burnt  umber. 

Light  Oak  and  Birch.  Eighty  parts  of  white-lead  to  one 
of  yellow  ochre  produces  a  good  ground,  but  sixty  pounds 
of  white  lead,  half  a  pound  of  French  ochre  and  one  ounce 
of  lemon  chrome  is  sometimes  preferred. 

Dark  Oak.  Sixty  parts  of  white  lead  and  one  part  of 
golden  ochre  may  be  used,  or  the  following  mixture  if  pre- 
ferred. Six  parts  of  white  lead,  one  part  of  French  ochre, 
one  part  medium  Venetian  red  and  one  part  of  burnt  um- 
ber. 

Satinwood.  Mix  six  ounces  of  lemon  chrome  to  fifteen 
pounds  of  pure  white  lead  and  add  a  little  deep  English 
vermilion. 

Pollard  Oak.  Tint  one  hundred  parts  of  white  lead  with 
twenty-seven  parts  of  French  ochre,  four  parts  of  burnt 
umber  and  three  and  three-quarter  parts  medium  Venetian 
red. 

200 


GRAINING  GROUNDS  201 

Pitch  Pine.  Tint  sixty  parts  of  white  lead  with  half 
part  medium  Venetian  red,  and  quarter  part  of  French 
ochre. 

Italian  Walnut.  One  part  of  French  ochre  mixed  with 
ten  parts  of  pure  white  lead  and  quarter  part  of  burnt  um- 
ber and  medium  Venetian   red  give  this  ground. 

American  Walnut.  Thirty  parts  pure  white  lead  tinted 
with  nine  parts  of  French  ochre,  four  parts  burnt  umber 
and  one  pai't  medium  Venetian  red. 

Antique  Oak.  Thirty  parts  pure  white  lead  tinted  with 
nine  parts  of  French  ochre,  four  parts  burnt  umber  and 
one  part  medium  Venetian  red. 

Ash.  White  lead  tinted  with  a  very  little  vermilion  and 
about  an  equal  quantity  of  lemon  chrome.  Some  prefer 
yellow  ochre  only,  others  ochre  and  raw  umber  in  the  pro- 
portion of  four  ounces  ochre  and  one  ounce  umber  to  thirty 
pounds  of  lead. 

Birch.  Eighty  parts  of  white  lead  to  one  of  yellow  ochre 
produces  a  good  ground,  but  sixty  parts  of  white  lead,  one- 
eighth  of  a  part  of  French  ochre  and  one-sixteenth  part,  of 
lemon  chrome  is  sometimes  preferred. 

Knotted  Oak.  Sixty  parts  of  white  lead,  nine  parts  of 
French  ochre  and  three  and  one-half  parts  burnt  umber. 

Rosewood  and  Dark  Mahogany.  Four  parts  of  medium 
Venetian  red,  one  part  of  orange  chrome  yellow,  and  one 
part  of  burnt  umber,  or  a  little  less  burnt  umber  may  be 
used   according  to   the   strength. 

The  graining  ground  mixtures  must  be  taken  as  an  aver- 
age arrived  at  from  comparison  of  the  methods  employed 
by  different  painters  in  various  parts  of  the  country.  As 
has  been  explained,  the  mixtures  given  are  those  which  may 
be  considered  an  average,  and  a  variation  of  them  may  be 
made  according  to  individual  taste  and  judgment. 


GRAINING  COLORS. 

It  will  be  understood  that  the  method  of  obtaining  a 
graining-  color  varies  just  as  much  as  it  does  in  the  case  of 
the  ground  color,  according  to  the  opinion  of  the  painter. 
The  following  are  given  as  what  may  be  safely  followed  to 
get  an  average  good  result: 

Light  Oak.  Mix  one-third  burnt  umber  with  two-thirds 
raw  sienna,  and  add  a  very  little  drop  black. 

Bird's  Eye  Maple.  Mix  raw  umber  and  raw  sienna  with 
a  little  Vandyke  brown  or  ivory  black. 

Ash.      Same   as  light  oak. 

American  Walnut.  Burnt  umber  to  which  is  added  a 
little  Vandyke  brown  will  give  a  good  graining  color  for 
walnut. 

Mahogany.  Burnt  umber,  burnt  sienna  and  Vandyke 
brown  with  the  addition  of  a  little  crimson  lake  for  over- 
graining,    will   answer   well   for   mahogany. 

In  producing  the  color  for  ordinary  use,  such  as,  for  in- 
stance, Anaglypta  or  lincrusta  or  other  relief  material,  mix 
Venetian  red  with  equal  parts  of  burnt  umber  and  burnt 
sienna,  and  even  add  a  little  orange  chrome  to  give  bright- 
ness. 

Rosewood.  Vandyke  brown,  with  the  addition  of  a  little 
black,  should  be  used,  and  rose  pink  may  be  added  if  de- 
sired. 

Pollard  Oak.  Mix  burnt  umbei',  Vandyke,  raw  and  burnt 
siennas  and  add  a  little  black  or  ultramarine. 

Cherry.     Use  raw  and  burnt  siennas  and  raw  umber. 

Chestnut.  Mix  raw  sienna,  Vandyke  and  raw  umber  with 
a  verv  little  burnt  sienna. 

202 


HOUSE    PAINTING. 

New  Work.  Do  not  use  cheap  ground  ochres  or  Venetian 
red  to  produce  tints  or  gTound  work.  They  will  cause  paint 
applied  over  them  to  blister  and  varnish  to  curl  and  flake. 

For  work  that  is  to  be  varnished,  do  not  use  colors  ground 
in  oil  for  the  solid  ground  color;  even  though  reduced  with 
tui'pentine  and  dry  apparently  flat,  they  still  contain  too 
much  oil  for  a  satisfactory  ground  for  japan  color  or  to 
allow  of  varnishing  over  them  with  safety. 

For  application  over  the  lead  coats,  use  colors  ground  in 
japan  for  deep  gTOund  colors  or  tints  which  require  a  large 
percentage   of   coloring  matter. 

New  store  fronts,  vestibules,  etc.,  which  are  built  of  soft 
wood  and  are  to  be  painted  in  oil,  should  receive  a  priming 
or  first  coat  mixed  with  2-3  oil  and  1-3  turpentine.  Allow 
ample  time  for  thorough  drying.  Putty  and  sandpaper. 
The  second  coat  should  be  mixed  with  half  turiDentine  and 
half  oil  to  a  good  consistency.  When  hard  dry,  sandpaper 
lightly  and  appl,y  a  coat  of  oil  paint.  This  will  not  blister, 
provided  the  wood  does  not  get  wet  from  the  sweating  of 
glass  or  like  causes. 

If  the  fronts  are  to  be  painted  and  varnished,  they  should 
receive  a  priming  coat  mixed  with  half  turpentine  and  half 
oil.  When  hard  dry,  putty  and  sandpaper  and  apply  a  coat 
mixed  with  2-3  turpentine  and  1-3  oil.  The  paint  should  be 
tinted  to  approach  the  shade  of  the  ground  work.  When 
hard,  sandpaper  lightly  and  apply  a  flat  coat  of  ground 
color.  Rub  this  coat  smooth  with  flne  steel  wool  and  apply 
one  or  two  coats  of  color  ground  in  japan,  according  to  the 
strength  of  the  color.  All  that  is  necessary  is  sufficient 
japan  color  to  make  a  solid  coat.  Stripe  and  ornament  ac- 
cording to  specifications,  then  finish  with  a  coat  of  exterior 

203 


204  CYCLOPEDLV  OF  PAINTING 

varnish.  If  more  fixpensive  work  is  desired,  a  coat  of  color 
varnish  can  be  applied  over  the  japan  color.  This  color 
varnish  can  be  made  by  adding  a  small  percentage  of  the 
japan  color  to  the  rubbing  varnish.  When  hard,  rub  smooth 
■with  fine  steel  wool  or  curled  hair.  Stripe  or  ornament  as 
desired,  then  finish  with  a  coat  of  elastic  varnish. 

If  the  finish  is  to  be  black  or  green,  the  undercoats  should 
be  dark  lead  color;  if  wine,  dark  terra  cotta  or  dark  I'ed; 
if  vermilion,  dark  yellow  for  light  or  terra  cotta  for  dark, 
and  vermilion  for  carmine  or  lakes  where  a .  deep  effect  is 
desired. 

Old  Work.  When  store  fronts  and  vestibules  are  to  be 
painted  in  oil  and  are  in  good  condition,  showing  no  cracks 
or  signs  of  peeling,  they  should  be  sandpapered  smooth.  If 
two  coats  are  to  be  applied,  the  first  should  be  reduced  with 
half  turpentine.  Over  this  apply  an  oil  paint.  It  should  be 
borne  in  mind,  however,  that  too  much  oil  must  not  be 
used,  especially  where  the  fronts  are  exposed  to  the  hot 
sun. 

When  store  fronts  and  vestibules  are  to  be  repainted  and 
varnished  and  the  old  paint  has  stood  for  two  or  three  years 
and  is  in  good  condition,  the  surface  not  having  received  too 
numerous  coats,  they  can  sometimes  be  sandpapered  smooth 
and  a  coat  of  flat  ground  color  applied,  then  a  coat  of  color 
in  japan.  Stripe  and  ornament,  then  finish  with  a  coat  of 
exterior  varnish. 

When  the  fronts  have  been  repainted  a  number  of  times 
with  oil  paint,  they  will  not  stand  sun  exposure  after  re- 
ceiving the  varnish,  without  danger  of  blistering.  In  such 
cases  the  paint  should  be  burned  off  or  removed  with  a 
paint  remover.  The  surface  is  then  practically  new  and 
the  work  can  proceed  as  with  new  work,  with  the  exception 
of  the  priming  or  first  coat,  which  should  contain  a  larger 
percentage  of  turpentine  to  assist  in  penetrating  through 
any  old  paint  left  on  the  wood.  Then  proceed  as  with  new 
work,  building  up  the  surface  in  the  same  manner  by  using 


HOUSE  PAINTING  205 

flat  ground  colors  and  color  ground  in  japan  and  exterior 
varnish. 

Iron  Store  Fronts.  Thoroughly  clean  the  surface.  If  the 
work  has  been  covered  with  a  shop  coat,  scrape  and  thor- 
oughly sandpaper  before  applying  the  paint. 

In  painting  an  iron  store  front  in  oil  or  flat  color  and 
varnish,  the  treatment  should  be  the  same  as  for  a  wooden 
front,  with  the  exception  of  the  first  coat.  The  surface 
being  non-absorbent,  the  first  coat  must  be  mixed  so  as  to 
dry  firm  and  hard  by  oxidation  and  evaiDoration.  If  to  be 
finished  in  oil  paint  of  a  light  tint  with  a  lead  or  zinc  base, 
the  first  coat  should  be  reduced  with  1-3  oil  and  2-3  tur- 
pentine. If  a  solid  oil  is  to  be  used,  such  as  black,  red, 
etc.,  reduce  Avith  turpentine  and  a  small  proportion  of  japan 
to  assist  in  hardening.  Allow  ample  time  for  thorough  oxi- 
dation. Finish  with  one  coat  of  oil  paint.  If  to  be  painted 
and  varnished,  the  first  coat  should  be  mixed  with  %  tur- 
pentine and  14  oil>  tinted  to  approximate  the  shade  of  the 
ground  color  to  be  used.  When  hard  dry,  sandpaper  and 
proceed  with  a  flat  coat  of  ground  color  as  for  a  wooden 
surface. 

Interior  Finish — New  Work.  The  protection  and  prepara- 
tion of  the  surface  should  be  the  first  consideration  and 
should  be  as  carefully  planned  and  carried  out  for  plain 
painting,  staining,  varnishing  or  natural  finishing  as  for 
more  expensive  work,  as  these  are  often  the  foundations  for 
a  better  class  of  futui'e   finishing. 

Inside  door  frames  should  not  be  set  until  after  the  plas- 
tering has  been  completed,  then  put  in  with  the  other  finish, 
otherwise  the  mortar  will  stain  the  Avood  badly  and  these 
stains  cannot  be  removed  without  a  great  deal  of  trouble. 
In  fact,  frames  are  often  ruined  by  mortar  stains  and 
bruises  from  plasterers  removing  their  scaffolding.  These 
bruises  and  stains  especially  ruin  the  work  when  it  is  to 
have  a  natural  stain  or  finish. 

If  the  frames   are  set,  they  should  be  protected   before 


206  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  PAINTING 

the  plasterer  commences  work.  If  the  work  is  to  have  a 
natural  finish  and  the  frames  are  hard  wood,  they  should 
first  be  filled  with  paste  filler,  then  a  coat  of  shellac  or 
liquor  filler  applied.  If  the  frames  are  soft  wood  and  are 
to  be  stained,  they  should  be  given  a  coat  of  oil  stain;  if 
to  be  painted,  they  should  be  primed.  If  water  or  spirit 
stains  are  used,  cover  with  a  coat  of  shellac  or  liquid  filler, 
otherwise  the  lime  water  in  the  plaster  will  change  the 
color  of  water  stains.  A  strip  should  be  tacked  to  the  face 
of  the  frames  to  protect  them  from  being  bruised  or  scuffed 
up  during  the  plastering. 

Floors  which  are  to  be  finished  natural  or  stained  should 
not  be  laid  until  after  the  plastering  is  done.  Floors  should 
be  the  last  work  of  the  carpenter  as  well  as  the  painter. 
This  requires  laying  an  extra  floor.  On  the  best  and  more 
expensive  buildings  this  is  looked  after  by  the  architect 
in  his  specifications.  However,  there  are  a  number  of  build- 
ings in  which  the  floors  are  laid  before  the  plasterer  com- 
mences his  work,  and  as  these  are  to  be  finished  either  nat- 
ural, stained  or  painted,  they  should  be  protected  from  plas- 
tering. 

As  soon  as  the  caipenter  has  finished  sandpapering  and 
dressing  down  the  floors,  they  should  be  carefully  swojit  and 
dusted  off.  The  cracks  should  be  filled  with  either  a  good 
linseed  oil  putty  mixed  with  1-3  keg  lead,  or  a  good  crack 
and  crevice  filler,  which  is  not  so  likely  to  be  affected  by 
shrinkage  of  the  floors  as  is  putty. 

If  hard,  open-grained  wood,  the  floors  should  first  re- 
ceive a  coat  of  paste  filler,  then  a  light  coat  of  shellac  or 
floor  finish. 

If  the  floors  are  soft  or  hard  pine  and  to  be  finished  nat- 
ural, they  should  receive  a  coat  of  shellac  or  liquid  filler  of 
good  quality,  applied  thin.  If  to  be  stained,  they  should 
receive  a  coat  of  oil  stain. 

When  dry,  cover  the  floors  with  heavy  building  paper 
or  plain   carpet  lining  tacked   down  solidly.       Sprinkle  dry 


HOUSE  PAINTING  207 

sand  ai'ound  the  walls  to  keep  the  mortar  from  soaking  into 
the  paper.  Allow  this  covering  to  remain  on  the  floors  until 
after  the  painting  or  finishing  is  done  on  the  other  parts  of 
the  room.     The  floors  should  be  finished  last. 

Before  the  carpenter  turns  the  work  over  to  the  painter, 
he  should  remove  from  the  rooms  all  blocks,  shavings,  etc., 
and  turn  as  much  of  the  building  over  to  the  painter  at  one 
time  as  is  possible. 

The  painter  should  sweep  the  room  clean  and  thoroughly 
dust  off  the  work  before  commencing  to  i^aint,  stain  or  var- 
nish. 

Putty  nail  holes,  joints,  etc.,  with  good  putty,  one  which 
will  not  soften  with  age  or  turn  yellow  if  white  or  light 
tints  are  applied  over  it. 

If  the  work  is  to  be  painted,  soft  pine  doors  and  casings 
should  first  receive  a  coat  of  size  to  keep  them  from  spot- 
ting. This  should  be  a  shellac  size  if  the  work  will  permit. 
Good  liquid  filler  is  often  used  with  good  results  by  reduc- 
ing to  a  thin  consistency  and  applying  a  smooth,  even  coat. 
Hard  drying  varnishes,  such  as  copal  and  hard  oil  finishes, 
are  successfully  used  by  applying  them  thin.  Glue  size 
can  also  be  used  if  applied  hot  and  very  thin.  It  should  not 
be  allowed  to  get  cold,  as  it  will  not  strike  into  the  wood 
but  remain  on  the  surface  and  is  liable  to  break  away.  It 
is  very  hard  for  ordinary  dampness  to  affect  glue  size  after 
it  has  been  properly  applied  and  covered  with  paint  or  var- 
nish. Where  the  price  of  work  will  not  permit  of  sizing 
or  the  specifications  do  not  call  for  it,  satisfactory  work 
can  be  done  by  mixing  varnish  with  the  priming  coat.  Var- 
nish and  turpentine  will,  to  a  certain  extent,  keep  the  work 
from  spotting. 

The  paint  for  interior  work  should  be  mixed  with  a  large 
percentage  of  turpentine.  Oil  will  turn  the  work  yellow. 
If  white  work,  such  as  flat  white,  white  enamel,  is  to  be 
done,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  tfiat  the  priming  coat  should 
be   mixed   with    turpentine,   otherwise   the   work   will  yellow 


208  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

in  a  very  short  time,  especiall}'  where  sizing  has  not  been 
used.  An  excess  of  oil  will  also  cause  the  work  to  crack 
and  check  badly.  Too  much  oil  cannot  be  used  for  in- 
terior work  with  safety.  Where  the  work  is  to  be  finished 
with  oil  paints,  more  oil  can  be  used  in  the  priming.  It 
should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  interior  work  should 
always  dry  hard  and  firm  to  insure  good  results  from  its 
present  painting,  also  to  allow  of  satisfactorily  repainting. 

In  giving  these  directions  for  the  different  classes  of 
work,  the  one  principal  object  has  been  to  caution  against 
the  application  of  too  numerous  coats.  It  is  not  the  amount 
of  paint  applied  to  a  surface  which  produces  the  results, 
it  is  the  manner  of  application,  the  proper  mixing  of  the 
paint  and  the  preparation  of  the  surface.  lu  enameled  or 
grained  work  it  is  especially  true  that  where  too  numer- 
ous coats  of  ground  work  are  apjolied,  it  is  very  hard  to 
repaint  such  a  surface  if  at  any  time  a  different  class  of 
work  should  be  desired. 

Throughout  the  directions  for  undercoats  on  all  classes 
of  work  it  will  be  found  that  vai'nish  is  specified  in  place 
of  oil  and  japan.  This  gives  the  most  satisfactory  under- 
coat surface  that  can  possibly  be  made,  especially  if  a  good 
grade  of  varnish  is  used.  The  work  will  remain  in  good 
condition  for  an  indefinite  length  of  time;  it  will  not  craok 
or  check;  the  grain  of  the  wood  will  be  thoroughly  filled 
and  with  this  method  of  reducing  the  paint,  the  number 
of  coats  to  produce  satisfactory  work  can  be  cut  down. 

Mixtures  of  japan  and  oil  for  undercoats  are  not  always 
satisfactory  for  interior  work.  Too  much  oil  makes  spongy 
work  which  is  liable  to  crack  and  check  badly.  Heavy  mix- 
tures of  oil  and  japan  will  do  likewise. 

The  directions  given  are  not  new  but  have  been  tried 
out  in  the  most  practical  ways  and  have  aiwa3-s  proved  en- 
tirel}'  satisfactory. 

Sandpaper  or  smooth  the  surface  with  fine  steel  wool 
and  dust   off  thoroughly  before  applying   the  paint. 


HOUSE  PAINTING  209 

"Where  paint,  enamel  or  varnish  are  retarded  in  their 
drying  by  weather  conditions  or  other  causes,  the  work  can 
be  assisted  in  dryin^^  and  hardening  by  sandpapering  or 
mossing  off,  killing  the  gloss  and  allowing  it  to  be  exposed 
to  a  free  circulation  of  air.  This  will  harden  work  in  a 
few  hours  as  much  as  if  allowed  to  stand  for  a  consider- 
able length  of  time. 

Cheap  paint  should  not  be  used  for  inside  work  any 
more  than  on  the  exterior  of  the  building,  if  good  results 
are  to  be  expected.  It  is  a  mistake  to  use  eheajD  ochre  for 
priming.  The  same  paint,  or  something  as  good,  should  be 
used  for  priming  or  first  coat  as  is  used  for  the  finishing 
coats  or  for  building  up  the  ground  work  for  enameling, 
graining  and  like  work. 

Oil  Paint  in  White.  Where  two  coat  oil  paint  work  is  speci- 
fied, without  sizing,  the  first  coat  should  be  reduced  with 
half  turpentine  and  half  oil  to  a  good  consistency,  then  a 
half  pint  of  good  hard  drying  or  enamel  varnish  added. 
This  will  dry  hard  and  will  not  spot  as  badly  on  soft  pine 
wood  as  a  turpentine  oil  reduction.  After  it  is  hard  dry, 
putty  crevices  and  nail  holes  with  good  putty,  one  which 
will  not  turn  yellow,  or  the  puttying  can  be  done  before 
the  priming  coat  is  applied.  Should  there  be  holes  that  are 
not  properly  filled,  they  can  be  reputtied  over  the  first  or 
priming  coat.  Sandpaper  or  rub  with  fine  steel  wool  to  a 
smooth,  even  surface,  dust  off  and  apply  a  second  coat 
mixed  to  a  good,  heavy  consistency  with  half  oil  and  half 
turiDcntine,  or  1-3  good  hard  drying  varnish,  1-3  oil  and 
1-3  turpentine.  Either  mix  will  dry  with  a  good  gloss  and 
can  be  washed. 

For  three-coat  work  the  primer  should  be  mixed  as  be- 
fore stated,  the  second  coat  mixed  with  three  parts  turpen- 
tine and  one  part  oil  or  hard  drying  varnish.  This  will  dry 
with  an  eggshell  gloss.  Sandpaper  or  rub  with  fine  steel 
wool  to  a  smooth,  even  coat  and  apply  the  finishing  coat 
of  medium  consistency,  mixed  with  half  turpentii^e  and  half 


210  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

oil,  or  1-3  each  turpentine,  oil  and  varnish.  This  should 
dry  with  a  good  gloss  and  can  be  scrubbed.  This  work, 
however,  will  turn  yellow  with  age,  as  will  enamel  if  ap- 
plied over  it. 

Gloss  Work  in  White.  Satisfactory  two-coat  gloss  work 
cannot  be  done  on  bare  wood.  If  the  work  is  not  filled  or 
sized,  the  primer  should  be  mixed  to  a  thin  consistency  with 
■%  tui-pentine  and  Vg  hard  drying  or  enamel  varnish.  The 
second  coat  should  be  of  the  same  mixture  but  of  heavier 
consistency.  If  for  a  size  or  filled  surface,  the  first  coat 
should  be  of  the  same  consistency  and  mixture  as  for  sec- 
ond coat  over  bare  wood.  This  will  dry  flat.  Sandpaper 
or  rub  with  fine  steel  wool  to  a  smooth,  even  coat. 

If  the  work  is  to  be  finished  in  lead,  use  1-3  of  the  sec- 
ond coat  flat  mixture  and  2-3  hard  drying  or  enamel  var- 
nish. If  a  white  finish  is  desired,  zinc  in  place  of  lead 
should  be  used.  For  zinc  finish,  prime  with  lead  reduced 
as  before  stated.  Second  coat  with  zinc  varnish  reduced 
with  turpentine.  Sandpaper  between  coats  and  finish  with 
1-3  second-coat  zinc  mixture  and  2-3  white  or  enamel  var- 
nish. Either  of  these  finishes  will  dry  with  a  good  gloss 
and  should  not  turn  yellow  or  cheek. 

Oil  Paint  in  Tints.  Reduce  the  priming  coat  with  half 
turpentine  and  half  oil.  To  one  gallon  of  paint  add  a  half- 
pint  of  good  varnish.  The  paint  should  be  of  good  con- 
sistency and  applied  smoothly  and  evenly.  When  hard  dry, 
sandpaper,  dust  off  and  apply  a  coat  mixed  as  before  stated, 
only  of  a  heavier  consistency.  This  paint  will  dry  with 
sufficient  gloss  to  allow  of  washing. 

For  three-coat  work  the  primer  should  be  mixed  as  noted 
and  the  second  coat  mixed  with  three  parts  tui-pentine  and 
one  part  oil.  This  will  di-y  about  flat  and  can  be  sand- 
papered smooth  before  applying  the  finishing  coat  which 
should  be  mixed  with  half  turpentine  and  half  oil.  To  a 
gallon  of  the  mixture  add  a  half-pint  of  good  mixing  var^ 


HOUSE  PAINTING  211 

nish;  this  should  dry  with  fair  gloss  and  can  be  washed  or 
scrubbed. 

Gloss  Work  in  Tints.  The  primer  can  be  mixed  with  half 
oil  and  half  turpentine.  It  is  safer  to  cut  down  the  amount 
of  oil,  using  2-3  turpentine  and  1-3  oil.  After  the  priming 
is  thoroughly  hard,  putty  and  sandpaper  and  apply  a  coat 
of  flat  color  of  good  consistency.  When  hard,  sandpaper  to 
a  smooth,  even  surface  and  apply  a  coat  of  1-3  flat  color 
and  2-3  good  color  mixing  varnish.  This  paint  should  be 
flowed  on  smoothly  and  evenly.  It  will  dry  with  a  good 
gloss  and  make  a  very  satisfactory  finish. 

Flat  Finisli  in  Three  Coats.  A  satisfactory  flat  finish 
cannot  be  obtained  with  less  than  three  coats  unless  the 
wood  has  been  filled  or  sized.  The  priming  coat  for  bare 
wood  should  be  mixed  to  a  thin  consistency  with  %  tur- 
pentine and  Ys  varnish.  Putty  with  good,  hard  drying 
putty,  one  which  will  not  show  gloss  spots  or  turn  yellow. 
Sandpaper  or  rub  with  fine  steel  wool  to  a  smooth  surface. 
The  second  coat  should  be  mixed  to  a  heavier  consistency, 
carrying  a  little  larger  percentage  of  varnish  so  as  not  to 
leave  a  surface  which  is  too  flat.  This  same  mixture  should 
be  used  for  the  first  coat  over  a  surface  which  has  been 
filled  or  sized.  If  for  white  work,  white  enamel  varnish 
should  be  used  where  varnish  is  specified.  Rub  smooth  with 
curled  hair,  dust  off  and  apply  a  finishing  coat  mixed  flat. 
This  will  dry  without  gloss  spots.  It  can  be  mixed  with 
either  lead  or  zinc,  according  to  the  specifications,  also  white 
or   tints   according   to   the   work   desired. 

If  a  dead  flat  finish  is  desired,  when  lead  is  used,  the  lead 
should  first  be  washed  with  turpentine.  If  a  zinc  finish, 
use  zinc  reduced  with  turpentine. 

Enamel  in  Three  Coats.  The  priming  or  first  coat  should 
be  mixed  according  to  directions  for  flat  work.  If  the  lead 
used  is  soft  ground,  it  should  be  washed  with  tur- 
pentine and  allowed  to  stand  over  night  and  the  turpentine 
poured  off  in  the  morning.     Reduce  the  paint  with  all  tur- 


212  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  PAINTING 

pentine  to  which  reduction  should  be  added  1-32  to  1-16 
gallon  of  the  enamel  to  each  gallon  of  paint.  This  will 
assist  in  hardening  the  paint  and  the  mixture  can  be  used 
either  on  bare  wood  or  over  a  sized  surface.  When  the 
priming  or  first  coat  is  thoroughly  hard,  putty  with  good 
hard-drj'ing  putty,  one  which  will  not  turn  yellow,  then  rub 
with  fine  sandpaper  or  steel  wool,  after  which  apply  a 
second  coat  mixed  flat,  to  which  has  been  added  a  pint  of 
the  enamel  to  a  gallon  of  paint.  Rub  this  coat  smooth  with 
fine  sandpaper  or  curled  hair.  Apply  a  good,  smooth,  even 
coat  of  enamel  of  good  consistency.  If  properly  applied, 
the  enamel  can  be  left  in  full  gloss  finish  or  lightly  rubbed. 
If  a  higher  finish  is  desired,  reduce  the  first  coat  of  enamel 
with  a  small  amount  of  turpentine,  one  pint  to  the  gallon 
of  enamel.  Rub  this  coat  with  fine  steel  wool  to  kill  the 
gloss  and  level  down  the  surface,  then  flow  on  a  smooth, 
even  coat  of  enamel.  This  can  be  rubbed  to  the  finish  de- 
sired and  polished  after  three  to  four  days'  standing.  If 
desired,  zinc  can  be  used  for  the  flat  coats  in  the  foregoing 
directions;  however,  it  is  best  to  use  lead  for  building  up 
undercoats. 

Zinc  Finish.  The  priming  coat  for  zinc  should  be  as  di- 
rected for  flat  work.  Lead  is  best  to  use  for  priming  or 
first  coat  over  a  sized  surface.  Where  two  or  three  coats 
of  flat  zinc  work  are  specified,  reduce  zinc  that  has  been 
ground  in  varnish  with  turpentine  to  a  medium  thin  con- 
sistency and  apply  over  a  first  coat  of  lead.  When  dry,  rub 
with  curled  hair  and  appl.y  a  second  coat  of  the  same  mix- 
ture of  a  heavier  consistency.  This  will  dry  flat  and  make 
a  beautiful  finish. 

If  a  gloss  finish  is  desired,  apply  the  finishing  coat  of 
zinc  in  varnish  reduced  with  turpentine  to  a  consistency  of 
cream.  To  one  part  of  this  mixture  add  two  parts  white 
enamel  varnish.  If  a  higher  finish  is  desired  rub  this  coat 
with  fine  steel  wool  and  apply  a  coat  of  clear  varnish.  This 
can  be  rubbed  to  the  desired  effect. 


HOUSE  PAINTING  213 

Ebony  or  Flat  Black  Finish,  \\niere  work  is  to  be  fin- 
ished in  ebony,  either  in  gloss  or  flat,  the  wood  should  be 
prepared  according  to  the  finish.  If  soft  wood  and  is  to  be 
finished  in  ebony,  it  should  receive  a  coat  of  shellac;  putty 
with  black  putty  and  apply  a  coat  of  dark  lead  color,  mixed 
flat,  to  which  has  been  added  a  half-pint  of  good  hard-dry- 
ing varnish  to  the  gallon  of  paint.  When  hard  dry,  rub  off 
smooth  with  curled  hair.  Over  this  aiiply  a  coat  of  flat 
black.  If  a  gloss  or  polish  is  desired,  apply  a  coat  of  black 
color  and  varnish  or  ebony  finish.  This  can  be  rubbed  to 
a  dead  effect.  If  a  more  expensive  finish  is  desired,  slightly 
reduce  the  first  coat  of  varnish  color  or  ebony  finish,  ac- 
cording to  the  temperature  of  the  room.  When  hard  dry, 
cut  down  smooth  with  fine  steel  wool,  dust  off  and  fiow  on 
an  even  coat  of  the  color  varnish  or  ebony  finish.  This  can 
be  rubbed  and  polished. 

Where  grill  work  and  plate  rails  or  hard  wood  are  to  be 
finished  and  the  open-grain  effect  is  desired,  add  to  the  flat 
black  a  few  drops  of  oil  and  apply  a  coat  to  the  bare  wood. 
Allow  to  stand  a  short  time,  then  wipe  off  to  the  desired 
effect  of  flat  black  or  Flemish  finish.  If,  however,  the  hard 
wood  is  to  be  finished  in  gloss  or  polish,  it  should  first  be 
filled  with  paste  filler,  then  proceed  as  with  soft  wood  var- 
nish coats,  leaving  off  the  dark  lead  color  coat. 

Cupboards  and  Pantries.  When  cupboards  and  pantries 
are  to  be  painted,  the  first  or  priming  coat  should  be  applied 
to  the  bare  wood  and  mixed  with  2-3  turpentine  and  1-3 
oil.  This  will  dry  hard  and  can  be  sandpapered  smooth. 
If  two  coats  only  are  to  be  applied,  the  finishing  coat  should 
be  mixed  to  dry  hard  and  firm.  If  oil  paint,  it  can  be  mixed 
to  a  good  consistency  with  2-3  oil  and  1-3  turpentine  and 
a  small  amount  of  good  japan,  or  mix  the  desired  color  flat 
and  use  half  color  and  half  good-drying  varnish.  The 
paint  should  be  of  the  same  consistency  as  varnish.  To 
this   a   further  percentage   of   turpentine   can  be   added   to 


214  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

insure  ease  of  working,  or  a  small  percentage  of  oil  can 
be  used,  but  not  enough  to  cause  the  paint  to  dry  tacky. 

If  three  coats  of  oil  paint  are  specified,  the  second  coat 
should  be  of  the  same  mixture  as  the  primer,  but  of  a 
heavier  consistency.  When  hard,  sandpaper  and  apply  a 
coat  of  paint  mixed  with  2-3  oil  and  1-3  turpentine.  If 
sufficient  time  is  allowed,  this  should  dry  firm  and  hard. 
If  a  varnish  finish  is  desired,  the  finishing  coat  varnish  color 
can  be  applied  as  recommended  for  two-coat  work. 

In  painting  the  pantries,  cupboards,  etc.,  it  is  very  essen- 
tial that  the  doors  and  drawers  should  not  be  closed,  so  as 
to  allow  the  paint  drying  hard.  A  free  circulation  of  air  is 
absolutely  necessary. 

Graining  Ground.  Graining  grounds  which  are  mixed  with 
all  oil  are  very  liable  to  crack  and  check  after  varnish  has 
been  applied  over  them.  Care  should  always  be  used  in 
noting  that  the  undercoats  are  thoroughly  hard  before  ap- 
plying subsequent  coats.  There  should  not  be  too  much  oil 
used. 

If  the  priming  is  to  be  applied  to  the  bare  wood,  reduce 
with  half  oil  and  half  turpentine.  Allow  this  to  thoroughly 
harden  through,  putty,  sandpaper  smooth  and  apply  a  coat 
of  paint,  mixed  flat,  to  which  has  been  added  a  half-pint  of 
hard-di'ying  varnish  to  the  gallon  of  paint.  When  hard, 
rub  smooth  with  fine  sandpaper  or  steel  wool  and  apply  a 
coat  of  the  same  paint  with  the  addition  of  varnish  to  allow 
of  drying  with  a  slight  gloss,  or  a  small  amount  of  oil  can 
be  used,  but  not  enough  to  cause  the  paint  to  dry  tacky. 
If  the  surface  has  been  sized,  the  first  coat  should  be  mixed 
with  2-3  turpentine  and  1-3  oil,  smoothed  off  and  finished 
with  one  coat  as  recommended  for  finishing  on  bare  wood. 
Graining  color  can  be  worked  over  this  ground  without 
danger  of  cutting  through  with  the  graining  combs  or  when 
cutting  out  growths,  as  is  often  the  case  when  oil  is  used 
in  ground  work. 

It  is  best   to  grain   in  distemper  for  interior  work.     For 


HOUSE  PAINTING  215 

exterior  work,  more  oil  can  be  used  for  building  up  the 
ground  work  than  for  interior.  However,  if  the  work  is  to 
be  varnished,  most  of  the  oil  should  be  cut  out.  A  great 
many  painters  prefer  not  to  varnish  exterior  work,  but  ap- 
ply a  coat  of  oil,  rub  off  with  a  soft  cloth  and  let  the  work 
remain  with  this  finish.  Where  varnished  work  is  used  on 
the  exterior,  the  graining  should  be  done  in  distemper  if 
possible,  or  the  oil  graining  color  should  be  allowed  to 
stand  until  thoroughly  hard  before  applying  the  varnish ; 
this  insures  against  blistering  and  cracking. 

Floors.  Where  the  priming  can  be  allowed  to  stand  a 
sufficient  time  to  thoroughly  harden,  the  paint  can  be  mixed 
with  half  turpentine  and  half  oil.  Where  time  will  not  per- 
mit, 2-3  turpentine  and  1-3  oil  should  be  used.  Floor  paint 
should  dry  hard,  remembering  that  the  priming  or  founda- 
tion coat  is  very  important.  After  hard  dry,  putty  and 
apply  a  second  coat  of  paint  mixed  with  2-3  turpentine  and 
1-3  copal  or  mixing  varnish.  This  will  dry  hard  with  a 
slight  gloss.  Sandpaper  and  dust  off  and  apply  a  coat  of 
the  same  shade  mixed  with  2-3  varnish  and  1-3  flat  color. 
This  will  dry  with  a  good  gloss  and  can  be  used  without 
fear  of  scratching  or  peeling  if  the  varnish  used  is  of  good 
grade.  After  the  floors  have  been  used  and  have  become 
somewhat  worn,  they  can  be  renewed  by  washing  clean  and 
applying  a  thin  coat  of  floor  finish.  This  can  be  repeated 
as  often  as  the  floor  shows  wear. 

STAINING. 

Where  it  is  possible,  the  wood  should  be  stained  before 
being  nailed  to  the  wall  or  as  soon  as  the  carpenter  has  fin- 
ished dressing.  This  will  save  time  and  labor  in  finishing. 
The  stain  should  be  of  thin  consistency  so  as  to  penetrate 
into  the  wood  and  not  remain  in  spots  on  the  surface.  Al- 
low the  stain  to  remain  on  the  wood  a  short  time,  then  wipe 
off  with  a  cloth  to  even  up  the  work.     On  very  soft  pine, 


216  CYCLOPEDIA   OF  PAINTING 

it  is  often  necessary  in  order  to  produce  uniform  work  to 
size  the  same  with  a  thin  sizing  before  staining.  This  size 
should  be  very  thin,  and  it  is  well  to  wipe  it  off  immediate- 
ly after  appljang  so  as  not  to  have  an  excess  on  the  surface, 
thus  keeping  the  stain  from  striking  in  and  the  soft  and 
sappy  places  from  absorbing  so  much  of  the  stain  as  to 
make  the  finished  work  spotted. 

Where  size  is  used,  the  stain  should  be  allowed  to  re- 
main on  the  surface  longer  than  on  the  bare  wood  so  as  to 
allow  of  good  penetration  before, wiping  off.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary to  wipe  if  care  is  used  in  brushing  on  the  stain.  Where 
it  is  not  possible  to  stain  the  wood  before  nailing  to  the 
wall,  the  work  should  be  thoroughly  dusted,  then  puttied. 
Knife  the  putty  into  nail  holes  or  cracks,  after  which  apply 
the  stain.  Allow  the  stain  to  remain  on  the  surface  a  short 
time,  then  wipe  off  to  even  up  the  work.  When  hard,  sand- 
paper lightly  and  apply  a  shellac  or  liquid  filler.  When 
hard,  rub  with  fine  sandpaper  or  fine  steel  wool  to  a  smooth, 
even  coat,  after  which  apply  varnish,  the  number  of  coats 
depending   on   specifications. 

Cupboards  and  Pantries.  Where  cupboards  and  pantries 
are  to  be  stained  inside  on  the  shelving,  inside  drawers, 
etc.,  they  should  receive  a  coat  of  shellac  or  good  liquid 
filler  over  the  stain,  then  a  thin  coat  of  hard-drying  var- 
nish, one  which  is  not  easily  affected  by  heat,  otherwise 
there  is  danger  of  warm  dishes  or  other  utensils  sticking 
to  it. 

Floors.  Where  floors  are  to  be  stained  and  finished,  they 
should  be  stained  and  protected  according  to  instructions 
previously  given.  Where  these  instructions  have  been  fol- 
lowed, and  as  soon  as  the  interior  is  finished,  remove  the 
paper  and  dust  off  the  floors.  If  there  should  be  dust  from 
the  plastering  which  cannot  be  removed  with  a  duster,  dam- 
pen a  cloth  with  a  mixture  of  half  turpentine  and  half  oil 
and  with  this  remove  all  the  dust  and  leave  the  floors  clean. 
Do  not  have  enough  of  the  mixture  on  the  cloth   to  make 


HOUSE  PAINTING  217 

the  floor  oily,  just  a  sufficient  amount  to  take  up  the  dust. 
If  shellac  is  to  be  used  ovei-  the  stain,  use  turpentine  for 
cleaning.  Apply  over  this  stain  a  thin  coat  of  shellac  or 
good  liquid  filler.  Rub  off  lightly  with  fine  sandpaper  or 
steel  wool  and  aioply  a  coat  of  floor  finish.  This  can  be  left 
in  the  gloss,  rubbed  with  pumice  stone  and  oil,  or  sand- 
papered to  kill  the  gloss,  then  waxed  in  the  usual  manner. 
Should  a  deeper  stain  be  wanted  or  the  floor  be  marred 
or  scratched,  use  a  mixture  of  1-3  stain  and  2-3  floor  finish. 
If  the  floor  has  not  been  protected  before  the  plastering 
was  done,  it  chould  be  thoroughly  cleaned,  the  mortar 
scraped  off,  sandpapered  and  dressed  down  smooth  and  the 
cracks  filled  with  crack  and  crevice  filler  or  puttied  with 
good  putty;  then  apply  a  coat  of  stain,  after  which  the  floor 
can  be  finished  as  noted. 

TO  PAINT  PLASTERED  WALLS. 

Plastered  walls  should  receive  a  coat  of  size  before  paint- 
ing. The  best  size  which  can  be  applied  to  a  wall  is  a  thin 
coat  of  oil  paint.  This  is  hard  to  apply  without  showing 
laps,  but  these  can  be  easily  covered  with  subsequent  coats. 
When  hard  dry,  apply  a  coat  of  warm  glue  size  which  will 
fully  stop  absorption. 

If  the  walls  are  to  be  painted  in  oil  with  a  full  gloss, 
they  should  receive  the  finishing  coat  of  a  full  oil  reduction. 
If  to  be  half  flat,  the  finishing  coat  should  be  mixed  to  a 
good  consistency  with  half  turpentine  and  half  oil.  This 
will  cover  the  work  in  a  solid  manner  and  make  good  two 
coat  work. 

If  a  varnish  size  is  used,  reduce  a  fair  grade  of  hard  oil 
finish  or  varnish  to  a  thin  consistency  and  apply  freely  with 
a  full  brush.  When  hard  dry,  apply  a  first  coat  mixed  with 
half  oil   and  half  turpentine. 

If  a  full  gloss  is  desired,  the  finishing  coat  of  full  oil 
reduction  can  be  applied  over  this  surface,  or,  if  half  fiat 


21S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  PAINTING 

is  wanted,  the  same  mixture  as  for  first  coat  can  be  applied, 
but  must  be  of  a  heavier  consistency. 

If  the  walls  are  to  be  finished  flat,  three  coats  over  a  size 
must  be  applied.  If  an  oil  paint  and  glue  size  are  used,  a 
second  coat  mixed  half  flat  will  produce  a  satisfactory 
foundation  for  the  flat  color. 

If  varnish  size  is  used,  apply  two  coats  of  half  flat  paint, 
the  second  coat  of  a  heavier  consistency  than  the  first  coat. 
If  to  be  left  flat,  apply  one  even  coat  of  flat  paint  mixed  to  a 
good  consistency. 

If  to  be  stippled,  the  paint  should  be  mixed  flat  to  a 
heavy  consistency,  carrying-  a  small  percentage  of  varnish. 

In  applying  a  flat  color  on  large  rooms,  two  men  should 
work  together  in  order  to  avoid  showing  laps.  In  stippling 
large  surfaces,  it  is  customary  for  two  men  to  apply  the 
paint  and  one  man  to  follow  with  the  stippler. 

Where  the  walls  are  to  be  stippled  in  oil  paint,  the  finish- 
ing coat  should  be  mixed  to  a  heavy  consistency  with  2-3 
oil  and  1-3  turpentine.  Apply  the  paint  medium  heavy  and 
allow  it  to  stand  a  short  time,  then  proceed  to  stipple.  One 
man  can  apply  the  paint  as  well  as  do  the  stippling. 

Where  walls  have  been  stippled  or  decorated,  they  can 
be  protected  by  applying  a  thin  coat  of  good  starch.  Boil 
the  starch  and  strain.  Be  sure  it  is  uniform  throughout, 
then  reduce  to  a  thin  consistency  and  apply  a  thin  coat  and 
stipple  the  same  as  with  paint.  This  will  protect  the  deco- 
ration, and  after  it  becomes  soiled  with  smoke  it  can  be 
washed  off  and  another  coat  of  starch  be  applied  in  the 
same  manner  as  before,  thus  saving  the  decoration  for  an 
indefinite  length  of  time. 


HOUSE  PAINTING' 

Interior  Finish — Old  Work.  In  repainting  a  surface  that 
has  been  painted,  varnished,  enameled  or  stained  a  number 
of  times,  it  is  important  to  know  the  character  of  the  sur- 
face to  be  finished,  the  kind  of  work  that  can  be  satisfac- 
torily done  over  it,  also  necessary  to  know  how  to  properly 
prepare  the  surface  to  receive  the  finish,  as  well  as  to  know 
that  certain  kinds  of  work  cannot  be  successfully  done  over 
numerous  coats. 

Flat  white  and  enamel  cannot  be  applied  over  numerous 
coats  of  oil  paint,  as  they  will  turn  yellow  and  are  liable  to 
crack.  Grained  work  cannot  be  successfully  done  over  an 
enameled  surface,  as  the  surface  is  so  hard  and  brittle  that 
when  oil  graining  colors  are  used,  it  is  liable  to  break  loose, 
chip,  crack  or  check.  A  surface  which  has  been  enameled 
cannot  be  successfully  refinished  except  in  enamel.  The 
only  satisfactory  way  to  remove  enamel  is  with  paint  re- 
mover or  to  burn  the  surface. 

Painting  cannot  be  done  over  numerous  coats  of  varnish 
without  danger  of  checking  or  cracking,  therefore  the  var- 
nish should  be  removed  before  the  paint  is  applied.  Where 
numerous  coats  of  oil  paint  have  been  applied  and  are  of  a 
spongy  character  or  have  not  dried  solid,  the  surface  should 
be  burned  or  the  paint  taken  off  with  a  paint  remover.  If 
the  surface  is  cracked  or  alligatored,  it  should  be  cleaned 
to  the  wood  with  a  burning  lamp  or  paint  remover.  If  the 
work  is  badly  cracked  and  will  not  permit  of  burning,  it 
should  be  painted  in  flat  color.  Cracks  will  not  show  so 
badly  finished  in  flat  as  in  gloss. 

Oil  Paint.  Where  oil  paint  is  to  be  used  over  old  work, 
sandpaper  the  old  paint  to  a  smooth  surface  and  apply  a 
coat  mixed  with  half  turpentine  and  half  oil.      If  more  than 

219 


220  CYCLOPEDIA  OF   PAINTING 

one  coat  is  desired,  the  second  coat  can  be  applied  of  the 
same  paint  mixed  to  a  heavier  consistency;  however,  one 
coat  is  usually  sufficient  over  old  paint.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  apply  extra  coats  if  the  color  used  is  of  a  similar  shade 
to  the  old  paint.  A  well  covered  surface  can  be  made  with 
one  coat.  Avoid  aiDplying-  more  paint  than  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  produce  a  solid  finish. 

Gloss  Finish.  If  the  work  is  to  be  refinished  in  gloss, 
clean  the  surface  and  sandpaper  or  rub  with  steel  wool  to  a 
smooth  surface,  then  apply  one  coat  of  enamel  or  gloss  fin- 
ish as  directed  for  new  work,  finishing  coat. 

Flat  and  Enamel  Finish.  If  the  work  has  received  two  or 
three  coats  of  oil  paint  which  have  dried  solid  without  signs 
of  cracking  or  checking,  it  can  be  repainted  with  fair  re- 
sults if  first  sandpapered  smoothly,  then  covered  with  a 
coat  of  paint  mixed  flat.  When  this  is  hard  dry,  apply  a 
second  coat  if  necessary;  however,  if  the  one  coat  will  pro- 
duce a  satisfactory  finish,  it  is  all  that  should  be  applied. 
If  an  enamel  finish  is  wanted  over  this  same  surface,  the 
enamel  can  be  applied  over  the  flat  color.  The  first  enamel 
coat  should  be  reduced  with  a  pint  of  turpentine  to  a  gallon 
of  enamel.  When  hard,  rub  the  surface  with  fine  steel  wool 
to  cut  the  gloss  and  level  the  surface,  then  apply  a  smooth, 
even  coat  of  enamel,  using  a  full  brush  and  flowing  on  the 
enamel.     This  can  be  rubbed  or  left  in  a  gloss  finish. 

If  the  work  is  to  be  painted  or  enameled  white  and  the 
surface  has  received  numerous  coats  of  oil  paint  and  good 
results  are  expected,  the  old  paint  will  have  to  be  removed. 
Then  the  surface,  if  thoroughly  cleaned  and  sandpapered, 
will  be  in  good  condition  to  receive  paint  and  should  be 
treated  in  the  same  manner  as  new  work  which  has  not 
been  sized. 

To  enamel  over  a  varnished  surface,  it  is  very  necessary 
to  remove  all  of  the  varnish.  The  ground  work  for  enamel 
should  be  built  up  with  a  portion  of  the  enamel  or  a  good 


HOUSE  PAINTING  221 

mixing;  varnish  added  to  each  coat.  The  paint  should  be 
mixed  flat,  with  the  enamel  or  varnish  added.  The  first 
coat  should  contain  from  1  pint  to  IV2  pints  of  enamel  to  a 
gallon  of  paint.  Apply  the  second  coat  of  the  same  mix- 
ture of  a  heavier  consistency.  Each  coat  should  be  thor- 
oughly sandpapered  or  rubbed  smooth  with  steel  wool  be- 
fore applying  another.  The  third  coat  can  be  applied  with 
a  good  enamel  reduced  with  a  pint  of  turpentine  to  a  gallon 
of  enamel.  If  a  deeper  luster  is  wanted,  apply  a  heavy  coat 
of  enamel  of  the  original  consistency.  This  can  be  rubbed 
to  a  flat  finish  or  left  in  the  gloss.  If  the  enamel  used  is 
of  good  quality  and  the  undercoats  of  varnish  are  not  of  a 
cheap  rosin  quality,  this  work  will  not  check  nor  crack. 

Kitchens  and  Pantries.  Kitchens  and  pantries,  to  be  re- 
painted, should  be  thoroughly  cleaned.  The  best  way  is  to 
wash  the  woodwork  and  walls  with  rainwater  and  washing 
compound,  using  ^4  pound  of  Avashing  powder  or  soda  to 
three  gallons  of  rainwater.  Thoroughly  sponge  and  brush 
the  surface,  then  rinse  with  clear  water.  This  will  remove 
smoke  or  grease  more  readily  than  will  turpentine  or  ben- 
zine. For  the  walls  of  the  kitchen  or  pantry  to  be  repaint- 
ed, the  first  coat  should  be  mixed  half  flat,  then  apply  a 
full  oil  coat  of  a  flat  color  mixed  with  varnish,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  1-3  color  and  2-3  mixing  varnish.  Either  of  the 
foregoing  will  dry  with  a  good  gloss  and  can  be  washed. 

The  woodwoi'k  should  be  thoroughlj'  sandpapered,  and, 
if  in  very  bad  condition,  scraped.  If  the  old  paint  is  thor- 
oughly hard  and  two  coat  work  is  necessary  the  first  coat 
should  be  mixed  half  flat,  then  a  full  oil  coat  applied  over 
this,  or  flat  color  and  varnish  in  the  proportions  directed  for 
wall  work. 

Shelves  in  cupboards  and  pantries  should  be  thoroughly 
washed,  sandpapered  and  then  a  coat  of  flat  color  applied. 
The  finishing  coat  should  be  mixed  with  varnish  and  flat 
color  to  dry  hard  and  solid  so  as  not  to  be  softened  with 
moderate   heat.        Very   warm    cooking   utensils    are    often 


222  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

placed  in  pantries  and  on  shelves,  and  if  the  paint  is  not 
hard  dry  this  is  liable  to  soften  it. 

Kitchen  and  Pantry  Floors.  Floors  should  be  scrubbed 
three  or  four  days  before  paint  is  a}iplied.  If  there  are  any 
grease  spots,  wash  them  with  turpentine  or  benzine.  The 
first  coat  of  paint  should  bo  mixed  to  dry  firm  and  hard  in 
the  wood.  Reduce  lead  in  t)il  with  2-3  turpentine  and  1-3' 
good  copal  or  mixing  varnish.  When  hard,  sandpaper  ligiit- 
ly,  dust  off  and  apply  a  coat  of  2-3  mixing  varnish  and  1-3 
flat  color.  This  will  dry  with  a  good  gloss,  firm  and  hard 
and  make  a  coating  which  is  not  in  danger  of  being  scratched 
or  scuffed  up. 

Graining  Ground.  If  the  surface  has  been  previously 
painted  and  is  in  good  condition,  thoroughly  sandpaper  and 
apply  a  coat  of  paint  mixed  fiat  and  tinted  to  the  i^roper 
ground  color  with  a  pint  of  hard-drying  varnish  added. 
Should  the  paint  dry  too  flat  for  good  working  or  combing 
of  the  graining  color,  an  additional  amount  of  varnish  can 
be  added,  or  a  small  amount  of  oil.  If  numerous  coats  of 
oil  paint  have  been  applied,  or  if  the  surface  is  badly 
cracked,  the  paint  will  have  to  be  burned  or  removed  with 
paint  remover,  then  proceed  as  with  new  Avork. 

Where  graining  is  done  over  an  old  varnished  surface,  it 
is  best  to  remove  the  varnish  before  applying  the  paint  to 
avoid  cracking;  however,  if  it  is  impossible  to  do  so,  the 
ground  work  can  be  mixed  to  a  semi-paste  with  a  good  mix- 
ing varnish,  then  reduced  to  a  painting  consistency  with 
turpentine.  A  small  amount  of  oil  can  be  used  should  the 
color  not  work  freely,  but  not  to  exceed  four  ounces  of  oil 
to  the  gallon  of  paint.  Should  the  paint  dry  too  flat  for 
good  working  or  combing  of  the  graining  color,  an  addi- 
tional amount  of  varnish  can  be  used  in  the  second  coat  to 
produce  an  eggshell   or  semi-gloss,   whichever  is  desired. 

Staining.  If  a  surface  which  has  been  previously  paint- 
ed or  varnished  is  to  be  stained,  it  must  be  handled  and 
built   up  with  the  proper  shade  of  ground   color  according 


HOUSE  PAINTING  223 

to  the  wood  to  be  imitated  in  the  same  manner  as  a  simi- 
lar surface  for  graining  ground.  The  stain  must  be  of  a 
heavier  consistency  than  for  bare  wood.  Brush  out  thin 
and  even.  It  cannot  be  wiped  off  as  on  new  work  and  the 
effect  depends  upon  the  brushing.  If  the  grain  of  the  wood 
is  to  be  imitated,  the  surface  must  be  grained. 

Drying,  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  light  and  air 
are  necessarj'  to  the  drying  of  paint.  Paint  will  not  harden 
in  tightly  closed  rooms.  This  is  especially  true  of  kitchens, 
pantries  and  work  of  this  character  where  there  are  numer- 
ous shelves  and  drawers,  and  if  closed  the  paint  or  varnish 
will  remain  tacky  and  not  harden  through. 

Floors  which  are  to  be  painted  should  be  exposed  to  a 
free  circulation  of  air  from  underneath.  If  they  are  over 
damp  basements  or  cellars,  the  windows  or  ventilators  of 
same  should  be  opened  to  allow  of  free  air  circulation  from 
underneath,  as  dead  or  damp  air  will  prevent  the  paint  or 
varnish  on  floors  from  hardening. 


MARBLING. 

Sienna  Marble.  The  ground  of  Sienna  marble  is  white 
lead;  the  work  is  then  to  be  evenly  gone  over  with  white 
paint  mixed  with  equal  quantities  of  turpentine  and  oil. 
After  this,  mix  two  light  tints,  the  one  consisting  of  yellow 
ochre  and  white  lead  and  the  other  of  vermilion  and  white 
lead,  both  mixed  with  equal  quantities  of  oil  and  turpen- 
tine, and  with  separate  tools  dab  patches  on  the  white  paint 
whilst  yet  wet,  and  with  a  brush  well  soften  the  patches 
together,  great  care  being  taken  not  to  allow  the  red  tint 
to  be  too  dominant. 

On  a  palette,  on  the  side  of  which  is  placed  a  tin  dipper 
containing  turpentine,  place  a  small  quantity  of  blue  black, 
the  oil  colors  sold  in  collapsible  metal  tubes  are  the  best 
for  marbling,  and  a  small  quantity  of  purple  lake;  then 
with  a  sable  pencil  dipped  in  turpentine  take  a  thin  wash 
of  the  blue  black  and  vein  on  the  wet  work,  and  soften; 
then  work  up  the  veins  further  with  more  blue  black,  so 
that  the  color  may  be  a  little  darker,  but  still  thin;  after 
this,  with  a  flat  camel's  hair  fitch  dipped  in  turpentine,  and 
a  small  quantity  of  the  purple  lake  and  blue  black  mixed, 
apply  very  thin  washes  in  some  of  the  open  spaces,  and 
soften  lightly.  When  dry,  put  in  whites,  with  white  lead 
mixed  with  turpentine,  using  a  sable  pencil,  and  subsequent- 
ly softening  the  work  with  a  badger,  ^\^)en  the  paints  are 
quite  hard,  apply  a  light  varnish. 

Italian  Pink  Marble.  Over  a  white  ground  apply  a  coat 
of  white  paint  as  in  the  last  case,  compound  tints  of  ultra- 
marine and  white  lead  and  vermilion  and  white  lead,  each 
being  mixed  with  equal  quantities  of  oil  and  turpentine, 
and  with  these  dab  patches,  as  already  described,  and  soften. 
On   the  palette  place  some  Indian  red  and  with  a  small 

224 


MARBLING  225 

pigeon  feather  dipped  in  turpentine  and  some  of  the  In- 
dian red,  work  the  pattern  and  well  soften.  When  this  is 
dry,  mix  some  white  lead  mixed  rather  thinly  with  turpen- 
tine, and  flat  the  whole  of  the  work;  then  with  a  feather 
dipped  in  turpentine  scumble  over  the  work  and  subse- 
quently put  in  whites  with  white  lead  and  turpentine.  When 
the  work  is  perfectly  hard  it  is  to  be  varnished. 

Verde  Antique.  The  ground  of  Verde  antique  is  either 
black  or  dark  green,  the  marbling  colors  being  dark  brown 
and  green.  Scumble  over  the  work  with  these,  then  with 
Brunswick  green  and  white  lead  scumble  over  again  and 
soften  with  a  badger;  next  with  a  fitch  paint  masses  of  white 
of  various  shapes,  squares,  irregular  triangles,  etc.,  and 
similar  masses  of  black. 

The  painter  may  here  be  reminded  of  the  difference  be- 
tween scumbling  and  glazing.  In  the  latter  the  colors  are 
thinly  mixed  so  as  to  be  transparent;  in  the  former,  the 
color  is  mixed  thick  and  thinly  spread  or  rubbed  on  it  with 
a  hard  brush. 

Egyptian  Green  Marble.  This  marble  in  color  nearly  re- 
sembles the  Verde  antique;  it  is  superior  serpentine,  and 
there  are  several  sorts,  which  are  called  by  different  names, 
which  would  be  of  but  little  service  to  the  painter,  as  they  are 
all  for  his  purposes  comprehended  under  the  above  title. 
Egyptian  green  differs  from  Verde  antique  in  the  form  of 
the  veins,  which  run  in  a  more  horizontal  direction,  having 
a  greater  quantity  of  small  fossil  substances  mixed  with  it, 
and  the  dark  veins  frequently  running  in  streaks  which 
often  appear  as  if  broken  by  violence. 

Serpentine.  The  same  kind  of  marble,  though  not  so 
variegated  in  vein  or  color,  is  found  in  Germany,  Russia 
and  England.  It  is  called  serpentine  from  its  supposed  re- 
semblance to  the  skin  of  a  serpent  and  in  its  rich  variety  of 
color  and  almost  indestructible  hardness,  and  is  therefore 
eminently   suitable   for  architectural   ornaments. 

Noble   or  Precious    Serpentine   has   nearly   the   same   ap- 


226  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

pearance  with  the  green  marbles  of  the  East,  called  Egj'ptian 
green.  The  green  is  generally  the  cold  color  of  the  leek,  but 
varies  in  shades,  some  appearing  in  the  darkest  olive.  The 
veins  which  appear  black  sometimes  run  in  a  horizontal 
direction,  and  then  suddenly  break  and  appear  nearly  up- 
right; in  other  eases  thej^  seem  to  have  undergone  a  vio- 
lent concussion,  and  become  broken  and  shivered  to  small 
pieces.  It  is  the  business  of  the  geologist  to  explain  the 
cause  of  this  appearance  in  one  of  the  most  solid  of  min- 
erals; it  is  sufificient  for  the  painter  to  note  the  character, 
so  as  to  reproduce  it  as  far  as  possible  by  means  of  his  art. 

The  common  Serpentine  is  found  in  great  abundance  in 
the  Isle  of  Anglesea.  It  is  not  so  bright  or  so  varied  as 
the  precious;  the  dark  shades  of  green  are  much  broader, 
and  the  light  veins  not  so  fine  and  reticulated,  and  conse- 
quently the  fossil  remains  that  are  white  show  more  dis- 
tinctly in  small,  long,  square  pieces  of  various  sizes  and 
forms.  The  black  vein  is  so  mixed  with  the  darkest  shades 
of  green  as  to  be  scarcely  perceptible  in  some  instances,  and 
this  renders  the  marble  somewhat  dull  and  not  fit  for  orna- 
mental painting. 

The  mode  of  producing  all  the  green  marbles,  both  in  oil 
and  distemper  color,  must  be  the  same  as  that  directed  for 
Verde  antique.  The  ground  must  in  all  eases  be  black  and 
the  different  shades  of  green  may  be  formed  by  scum- 
bling the  white  over  the  black,  more  or  less  thickly  according 
to  the  variety  of  shade  required,  and,  when  the  whole  is 
finished,  glazing  with  green  according  to  the  tint  of  the 
marble. 

White-Veined  Marble.  The  ground  for  this  marble  is 
white  laid  perfectly  smooth.  The  first  vein  will  be  found, 
on  inspecting  a  specimen,  to  be  very  faint;  it  is  the  broad 
vein  of  the  mica  seen  through  a  great  depth  of  the  semi- 
transparent  body  of  the  white.  The  shadows  of  white  al- 
ways partake  of  a  yellow  hue,  and  thus  the  faint  vein  Avill 
appear  of  a  reddish  gray,  which  is  formed  by  mixing  white, 


MARBLING  227 

black  and  Indian  red  to  a  propex'  tint.  This  must  be  scum- 
bled or  spread  very  thinly  in  the  forms  that  it  is  intended 
that  the  veins  should  take.  In  relation  to  the  formation  of 
marbles,  it  must  here  be  observed,  that  they  are  beds  of 
rock  that  are  veined  by  metallic  or  other  substances  run- 
ning- amongst  them,  and  that  the  veins  always  run  in  the 
direction  of  the  strata,  precisely  as  thin  streams  of  water 
would  if  poured  upon  an  inclined  plane,  such  as  the  top 
of  a  table  slightly  raised  on  one  side.  If  this  experiment 
is  tried  it  will  be  found  that  the  streams,  if  they  commence 
regularly,  will,  from  some  inequalities  of  the  surface,  soon 
alter  their  course  and  turn  in  various  directions,  sometimes 
joining  together,  forming  a  sort  of  star,  and  then  spread- 
ing into  finer  threads,  while  others  will  join  and  form  a 
thick  vein,  but  still  running  in  various  forms  towards  the 
bottom.  This  is  precisely  the  way  in  which  the  various  sub- 
stances sjDread  themselves  on  the  limestone,  of  course  pene- 
trating the   surface   and  intersi^ersed   with  the  strata. 

From  this  experiment  the  painter  will  see  that  however 
the  direction  of  the  veins,  they  must  all  appear  to  be  trav- 
eling to  the  same  point  by  different  roads  and  nothing  can 
be  more  contrary  to  nature  than  those  violent  and  eccentric 
breaks  which  painters  of  veined  marbles  usually  practice. 
This  will  ajjply  to  all  marbles  except  Porphyry,  Black  and 
Gold  and   Florentine. 

The  first  broad  vein  of  the  marble  having  been  rather 
faintly  painted,  the  veins  nearer  the  surface  are  next  to 
be  put  in.  They  are  made  a  little  darker  by  the  addition 
of  black  and  are  to  be  drawn  very  thin,  taking  the  direc- 
tion of  the  broad  faint  vein  and  being  divided  according  to 
pi-evious  studies  from  nature.  The  veins  which  are  nearest 
the  surface  must,  of  course,  be  darker  than  the  othei'S,  and 
the  color  may  be  darkened  and  warmed  by  the  still  further 
addition  of  black,  with  a  little  lake  and  blue.  This  vein 
should  be  drawn  with  a  fine  sable  pencil  very  thin,  and 
made  to  take  nearly  the  direction  of  the  last  veining.    Only 


228  CYCLOPEDIA   OF  PAINTING 

very  little  is  i-equired,  but  it  must  be  put  in  with  spirit 
and  skill  and  the  beauty  of  the  work  will  thereby  be  greatly 
enhanced. 

The  whole  of  these  veins  are  put  on  one  upon  the  other 
whilst  wet  and  blended  together  with  the  badger  softener. 
When  quite  dry  the  dark  vein  may  be  retouched  either 
wholly  or  in  parts. 

Lay  on  a  ground  of  white  and  put  in  the  veins  with  a 
marbling  craj'on  or  camel's  hair  brush  whilst  the  ground 
is  wet,  and  soften  with  the  badger.  This  is,  of  course,  a 
much  inferior  method  to  the  above,  as  the  different  degrees 
of  depth  of  the  veins,  and  the  pale  smooth  portions  caused 
by  the  confluences  described  are  not  as  well  represented. 

riorentine  Marble.  The  ground  for  this  marble  is  white, 
Indian  red  and  black,  mixed  together  to  form  a  very  light 
reddish  neutral  tint.  The  veins  are  umber  or  burnt  sienna; 
they  are  laid  on  very  irregularly,  while  the  ground  color  is 
wet;  sometimes  they  are  very  close  together,  and  then  seem 
to  break  suddenly  into  the  forms  of  rocks  or  ruins,  an  effect 
which  must  be  studied  from  natural  specimens  and  must 
be  imitated  by  hand. 

Black-and-Gold  Marble.  The  ground  is  black.  Paint 
the  large  spots  from  which  the  fibrous  veins  are  to  run  with 
yellow  ochre  and  white,  the  bright  tone  of  which  must  be 
heightened  by  the  addition  of  a  little  vermilion.  These 
masses  must  be  dabbed  with  freedom  upon  the  ground  with 
a  l)rush  full  of  color  and,  whilst  quite  wet,  threads  must  be 
drawn  from  them  in  all  directions,  some,  of  course,  being 
larger   and   thicker   than   olliers. 

A  white  vein  is  sometimes  seen  running  in  the  deepest 
parts  of  the  black,  with  small  threads  attached  to  it,  cross- 
ing each  other  and  the  yellow  veins  in  all  directions.  Care 
must  be  taken  that  the  threads  are  connected  with,  and  run 
in  some  degree  in  the  same  direction  as,  the  thicker  veins. 
If  the  ground  of  this  is  properly  prepared,  the  yellow  and 
white  veins  may  both  be  painted  at  once  in  oil   color. 


MARBLING  229 

In  cabinet  work,  most  beautiful  imitations  of  the  finest 
specimens  of  this  marble  may  be  produced  by  spreading  a 
leaf  or  two  of  gold  in  any  part  of  the  work  where  the  gold, 
and  silver  leaf  where  the  white,  veins  are  intended  to  run. 
The  black  ground  is  then  to  be  rather  thickly  painted  over 
the  whole  surface,  covering  the  gold  and  silver  leaf,  and, 
after  the  color  has  been  on  a  short  time,  take  a  round- 
pointed  bodkin,  or  similar  implement,  and  draw  the  color 
in  small  reticulated  veins  from  off  the  gold  and  silver  leaf; 
the  metal  will  then  show  in  fine  lines;  the  larger  masses 
are  to  be  wiped  off  with  the  wash-leather  spread  over  the 
point  of  the  thumb  or  a  piece  of  wood.  When  the  black 
is  dry,  the  yellow  and  white  veins  are  to  be  painted  as  be- 
fore directed,  and  drawn  over  the  gold  and  silver,  which 
will  by  this  means  show  through  them  and  give  great  bril- 
liancy water  when  the  work  has  been  subsequently  var- 
nished. 

Paint  the  ground  a  deep  ivory  black;  put  on  the  veins 
in  white,  yellow  ochre  and  burnt  and  raw  sienna,  using  a 
camel's  hair  brush;  glaze  the  spaces  between  the  veins  with 
a  thin  coat  of  gray  or  white,  over  which  pass  a  few  white 
veins.     The  veins  may  also  be  put  in  with  gold  leaf. 

Porphyry  Marble.  Mix  the  ground  color  of  Venetian  red 
with  a  little  vermilion  and  white,  until  it  is  of  the  tint  re- 
quired. The  first  layer  of  spots  is  produced  by  sprinkling 
in  the  following  manner:  Mix  some  of  the  ground  color 
with  a  larger  quantity  of  white,  in  a  paint-pot,  and  use  a 
large  brush  which  has  been  well  worked  in  the  color;  hold 
the  palette  knife  over  the  paint-pot  and  press  the  hairs  of 
the  brush  against  the  edge  so  that  as  much  as  possible  of 
the  color  may  be  forced  out  of  it;  then,  taking  the  handle 
of  the  brush  between  the  palms  of  the  hands,  roll  it  to  and 
fro  with  a  rapid  motion,  the  ends  of  the  hairs  being  below 
the  level  of  the  paint. 

Now  hold  a  stick  firmly  in  front  of  the  work  and  strike 
the  handle  of  the  brush  against  it;  the  color  that  still  re- 


230  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

mains  in  it  will  thus  fall  on  the  surface  in  a  variety  of 
small  dots.  Great  care  on  the  part  of  the  painter  is  neces- 
sary at  this  stage,  so  as  to  distribute  the  spots  equally; 
otherwise,  whilst  one  part  of  the  work  will  be  left  only  par- 
tially spotted,  others  may  be  so  thickly  covered  that  the 
urops  will  become  confluent  and  not  be  visible  as  spots 
afterwards. 

When  this  work  has  become  sufficientlj^  di-y,  the  sprink- 
ling may  be  repeated  by  dipping  the  brush  into  a  color 
rather  deeper  than  the  ground;  it  may  be  Indian  red,  with 
suflBcient  white  to  give  it  a  bod3\  The  sprinkling  with  this 
color  must  be  done  very  sparingly  and  rather  more  in 
some  parts  than  others. 

The  last  sprinkling  is  to  be  done  with  a  clean  small  tool 
dipped  in  white  paint  only  and  the  spots  are  to  be  very 
fine;  as  much  color,  therefore,  as  possible  should  previously 
be  removed  from  the  brush,  and  it  will  be  found  that,  when 
so  little  color  remains  in  the  brush  that  it  will  scarcely 
mark  a  board  when  rubbed  on  it,  there  will  still  be  enough 
to  produce  the  fine  dots  when  struck  against  the  stick.  The 
stick  should  be  held  at  some  distance  from  the  work,  as  the 
farther  away  the  finer  will  be  the  dots.  In  imitating  some 
specimens,  the  three  layers  of  spots  are  laid  on  and,  in  ad- 
dition, a  narrow  opaque  white  vein  is  to  be  run  amongst 
the  spots;  from  this  transparent  threads  are  drawn  in  vari- 
ous directions;  these  cannot  be  added  until  the  whole  of 
the  sprinkling  is  quite  dry  and  hard;  they  must  then  be 
formed  with  a  sable  pencil  and  the  threads  drawn  out  with 
a  feather. 

Egyptian  Porphyry.  The  ground  for  this  rare  and  beauti- 
ful marble  is  composed  of  vermilion  and  white  lead.  A 
tint  of  Indian  red  and  lake  is  then  sprinkled  over  the 
ground  by  striking  the  handle  of  the  brush  containing  the 
color  against  a  stick,  and  turning  the  wrist  whilst  striking; 
some  of  the  dots  will  thus  become  elliptical  instead  of  cir- 
cular.    The  sprinkling  of  the  brush  must  be  spread  in  every 


MARBLING  231 

direction,  and  the  spots  will,  as  already  explained,  be  larger 
as  the  brush  is  struck  nearer  to  the  work  and  smaller  as  the 
distance  is  increased.  The  darker  spots  are  a  strong  tint 
of  lake,  sprinkled  on  the  previously  made  spots  by  strik- 
ing the  brush  very  smartly  once  or  twice  over  that  part  of 
the  work  where  they  are  required.  The  whole  must  then 
be  left  to  dry;  after  this,  a  light  blue  tint  must  be  sprinkled 
very  lightly  over  different  parts  of  the  surface,  but  in  no 
part  so  thickly  as  to  overpower  the  red.  The  larger  spots 
are  to  be  done  with  white  applied  with  a  sable  pencil  near 
the  darkest  sprinkling.  Dark  spots  of  a  tint  formed  with 
blue  and  lake  are  now  to  be  added,  and  the  work  is  to  be 
completed  by  white  veins  drawn  with  a  fine  camel's  hair 
pencil. 

Blue-and-Gold  Marble.  The  ground  for  this  marble  is  a 
light  blue,  and  when  this  is  quite  dry  dab  on  in  separate 
patches  light  blue,  white  and  Prussian  blue,  leaving  portions 
of  the  ground  visible.  Soften  these  patches  together  and 
then  vein  in  every  direction  with  white  and  fill  up  some  of 
the  irregular  spaces  with  yellow  or  gold  paint,  and  finally 
add  fine  white  veins. 

Blue  Ruby-Spotted  Marble.  The  blue  ruby-spotted  mar- 
ble comes  from  Switzerland;  it  is  light-colored,  beautiful 
marble  which  may  be  introduced  either  in  large  or  small 
masses  with  equally  good  effect. 

The  ground  for  this  marble  is  a  very  light  blue,  with  a 
few  patches  of  white  in  those  parts  where  the  yellow  spots 
are  afterwards  to  appear.  Both  the  blue  and  white  of  the 
ground  must  be  quite  dry  before  any  marbling  color  can  be 
applied.  A  bright  tint  of  Prussian  blue  nnd  white  may  be 
painted  on  in  spots  over  the  blue  ground,  and  above  this, 
whilst  wet,  a  few  touches  of  a  darker  tint  must  be  laid  on 
in  large  spots  sufficiently  apart  from  each  other  to  allow  the 
first  tint  to  be  seen  between  them. 

The  yellow  spots  may  now  be  applied  over  the  white 
ground;  this  is  done  with  King's  yellow  mixed  with  a  little 


232  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

vermilion.  The  work  must  be  left  to  dry  before  it  can  be 
proceeded  with.  The  surface  being  quite  hard,  paint  the 
dark  red  or  ruby  veins  with  a  tint  of  lake  and  blue.  This 
is  rather  dotted  than  painted  over  the  blue,  taking  care  to 
avoid  the  yellow.  These  marks  in  some  places  are  quite 
red,  and  for  these  lake  alone  is  used.  As  soon  as  the  ruby 
tint  is  applied,  mix  a  much  stronger  tint  of  lake  and  blue 
and  draw  the  strong  markings  over  the  lake;  these  lines 
are  drawn  out  in  a  long  succession  of  spots  over  the  blue. 
It  is  impossible  to  give  a  verbal  description  of  the  manner 
of  applying  the  tints  in  the  various  markings  of  this  marble, 
but  the  painter  who  keeps  the  general  character  cannot 
greatly  err  from  nature. 

This  is  a  most  excellent  pattern  for  distemper  color.  The 
ground  is  white,  the  light  blue  is  white  and  Prussian  blue; 
this  may  be  sprinkled  with  a  large  brush.  The  darker  spots 
are  a  tint  with  a  little  more  blue  than  the  first. 

Blue-Veined  Swiss  Marble.  This  mnrble  is  exceedingly 
splendid  in  color  and  not  very  difficult  to  imitate.  The 
ground  is  white.  Light  blue  spots  or  broken  streaks  are 
drawn  over  the  ground  so  as  to  let  the  white  be  seen  be- 
tween them.  The  blue  must  be  omitted  on  that  part  of  the 
ground  where  the  yellow  markings  are  seen.  On  these 
spaces  a  tint  of  King's  yellow  is  painted  and  on  this  tint 
broad  spots  or  touches  of  burnt  sienna.  The  work  must 
then  be  suffered  to  dry,  after  which  the  purple  tint  may  be 
applied  over  the  blue  spots;  this  tint  is  lake  and  blue;  the 
marking  upon  it  is  black;  a  glaze  of  burnt  sienna  in  differ- 
ent parts  will  give  variety  of  tint  to  the  representation. 

To  execute  this  marble  in  distemper  the  blue  may  be 
sprinkled  upon  the  ground  with  a  large  brush.  The  yellow 
is  King's  yellow,  touched  up  with  lake;  the  purple  tint  is 
indigo  mixed  with  rose  pink,  and  the  darkest  markings  are 
black. 

Dove-Colored  Spotted  Marble.  This  differs  from  the  Dove 
marbles  commonly  seen  by  the  contrast  of  the  strong  dark 


MARBLING  233 

and  light  spots,  and  the  interspersion  of  thin  light  veins. 
Dove  marbles  are  used  to  heighten  the  effect  of  white- 
veined  or  statuary  marble  in  sepulchral  monuments,  etc. 
The  imitation  in  painting  is  mostly  required  for  chimney- 
pieces  or  common  dark  work,  for  which  it  is  very  appro- 
priate. 

The  ground  for  this  marble  is  a  light  grey  formed  with 
black  and  white,  mixed  to  the  tint  required;  the  sprinklings 
on  the  ground  are  done  with  a  very  dark  tint  formed  of  the 
same  colors.  The  large  spots  are  black,  laid  upon  the 
sprinklings  while  wet  with  a  sable  pencil.  The  white  spots 
and  the  veining  may  also  be  painted  while  the  dark  sprink- 
ling is  wet,  as  they  will  then  blend  with  it  and  have  a  more 
natural  effect  than  it  would  if  they  were  painted  when  the 
dark  sprinkling  had  become  dry. 

The  process  and  colors  are  the  same  if  the  work  is  re- 
quired in  distemper,  but  as  it  is  so  easily  and  quickly  per- 
formed in  oil  it  is  seldom  that  distemper  color  for  so  dark 
and  common  a  marble  can  be  used  with  advantage. 

Dove  Marble,  For  the  ground  of  this  marble  two  or  three 
coats  of  good  lead-color  should  be  laid,  and  these  should 
each  be  nicely  smoothed  with  glass  paper.  The  color  used 
for  marbling  is  the  same  as  the  ground,  but  thinned  with 
turpentine.  In  order  that  the  work  may  be  satisfactorily 
blended  whilst  wet,  only  a  small  portion  must  be  taken  in 
hand,  the  whole  being  executed  piece  by  piece  until  com- 
plete. The  marbling  color  having  been  rubbed  over  a  cer- 
tain portion,  small  specks  representing  fossil  remains  are 
to  be  formed  in  it  with  a  whitish  tint,  and  these  must  be 
blended  into  the  color,  but  not  so  much  as  to  lose  their  dis- 
tinctions. Veins  of  various  sizes  are  then  to  be  put  in  with 
the  thinned  ground  color,  using  a  small  sash  tool,  distribut- 
ing them  with  taste,  and  interspersing  them  with  very  fine 
veins.  The  color  is  then  to  be  made  lighter  by  the  addition 
of  white  lead,  and  with  a  feather  dipped  in  this  color  the 
broader  veins  are  to  be  passed  over,  thus  forming  numerous 


234  CYCLOPEDIA   OP   PAINTING 

thread-like  veins.  Next,  with  thin  white  in  a  camel's  hair 
pencil,  pass  partly  over  the  same  veins  with  short  thick 
touches,  which  may  be  continued  in  the  narrower  parts  with 
a  fine  striping  pencil.  When  the  work  has  become  quite 
hard  it  should  be  smoothed  with  very  fine  glass  paper  be- 
fore being  varnished. 

Jasper  Marble.  The  ground  is  composed  of  Venetian  red, 
red  lead  and  a  small  quantity  of  chrome  yellow,  mixed  with 
oil  and  turpentine  in  equal  j^arts.  Or  additional  'brilliancy 
may  be  given  to  the  color  by  vermilion  or  lake  instead  of 
Venetian  red.  While  the  ground  is  wet,  dab  on  spots  of 
white,  using  either  a  piece  of  sponge  or  a  tool,  and  soften 
with  a  badger,  subsequently  repeating  the  white  touches  in 
parts  to  give  them  increased  brilliancy.  Spots  of  blue,  brown 
or  yellow  may  be  added  in  the  same  manner.  When  nearly 
dry,  veins  and  threads  may  be  put  in  with  a  camel's  hair 
pencil. 

Granite.  Granite  is  a  well-known  igneous  rock,  composed 
principally  of  three  minerals,  Quartz,  Felspar  and  Mica, 
united  in  a  confused  ci-ystallization,  that  is,  without  any 
regular  arrangement  of  the  crystals.  The  following  is  the 
order  in  which  the  ingredients  are  proportioned:  Felspar, 
Quartz,  Mica.  The  name  of  the  stone  is  derived  from  its 
granular  formation. 

There  are  very  many  kinds  of  granite  used  in  the  arts. 
Amongst  these  are  the  gray,  red,  green,  violet,  rose-colored, 
etc. 

For  the  gray  granite  the  ground  is  a  gray,  mixed  of  black 
and  white,  and,  over  this,  spots  are  to  be  splashed  with 
black  and  white,  used  separately,  the  work  being  carried  on 
as  described  in  relation  to  Porphyry.  For  the  various  shades 
of  red  granite  the  ground  is  composed  of  Venetian  red  and 
white,  the  spots  being  black,  white  and  vermilion.  In  the 
same  way  any  of  the  other  kinds  may  be  represented. 


MILDEW. 

Mildew  is  a  serious  trouble.  This  is  a  vegetable  growth 
and  always  a  sure  indication  of  dampness.  It  is  impossible 
to  satisfactorily  paint  a  surface  on  which  mildew  has  formed 
unless  the  surface  is  first  treated  to  destroy  this  growth. 

Ochre  primers  and  ochre  colors  are  particularly  liable  to 
this  really  sej'ious  trouble,  due  to  the  fact  that  they  are 
largely  of  bog  origin  and  contain  the  seeds  or  spores  as 
they  are  called  from  which  the  mildew  mold  develops.  Such 
growths  result  not  only  in  a  most  serious  discoloration  of 
the  work  which  at  times  may  be  taken  as  fading  or  change 
of  color,  but  also  are  verj'  destructive  to  the  paint  itself, 
mildew  not  only  developing  at  times  at  the  expense  of  the 
vegetable  oil  itself,  but  what  is  even  more  serious,  growing 
between  the  wood  and  the  paint  and  thus  forcing  the  paint 
off. 

Vegetable  oils  like  linseed  oil  are  not  destructive  to  this 
vegetable  growth,  but  turpentine  is,  hence  the  first  thing 
to  do  in  aggravated  cases  is  to  wash  well  and  freely  with 
turpentine,  removing  any  loose  paint;  this  will  very  largely 
destroy  such  growths.  In  ^addition,  an  exceptionally  large 
amount  of  turpentine  should  be  used  in  the  first  coat  ap- 
plied over  such  a  surface;  the  paint  should  be  well  flatted. 
An  undereoating  well  flatted  with  turpentine  applied  over 
a  mildewed  surface  which  has  been  washed  with  turpen- 
tine offers  the  best  possible  protection  against  repetition  of 
the  trouble. 

235 


OILS  AND  DRIERS. 

Linseed  oil  is  produced  by  expression  from  the  seeds, 
either  by  hydraulic  or  steam  power.  This  material  varies 
in  cjuality :  According  to  the  goodness  of  the  seed  from 
which  it  is  expressed,  and  according  to  its  age  and  clear- 
ness; for,  when  a  large  stock  is  kept,  it  is  found  that,  in 
about  six  months,  there  is  a  considerable  amount  of  accumu- 
lation of  refuse  at  the  bottom  of  the  tank,  which  is  only 
fit  to  be  employed  in  mixing  coarse  paint  for  out-door  work. 
The  best  is  yellow,  transparent,  comparatively  sweet-scent- 
ed and  has  a  flavor  resembling  that  of  the  cucumber.  Great 
consequence  has  been  attributed  to  the  cold  drawing  of  this 
oil,  but  it  is  of  little  or  no  importance  whether  moderate 
heat  be  employed  or  not  in  expressing  it.  Several  methods 
have  been  contrived  for  bleaching  and  purifying  this  oil 
so  as  to  render  it  perfectly  colorless  and  limpid,  but  these 
give  it  more  beauty  to  the  ej-e,  in  a  liquid  state,  without 
giving  it  any  permanent  advantage,  since  there  is  not  any 
known  process  for  preventing  the  discoloring  after  its  dry- 
ing, and  it  is,  perhaps,  better  upon  the  whole  that  this  and 
every  vehicle  should  possess  that  color  at  the  time  of  using 
to  which  it  subsequently  tends,  so  that  the  painter  may 
depend  on  the  continuance  of  his  tints,  and  a%'oid  the  dis- 
appointment and  annoyance  arising  from  a  change  of  color. 

Linseed  oil  is  sometimes  boiled  with  litharge  to  make  it 
dry  quickly,  but  when  it  is  thus  treated  it  is  unfit  for  best 
work. 

The  quality  of  linseed  oil  may  be  determined  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner:  Fill  a  phial  with  oil  and  hold  it  up  to 
the  light;  if  bad,  it  will  appear  opaque  and  turbid,  its  taste 
will  be  acid  and  its  smell  rancid.    The  oil  which  is  expressed 

236 


OILS  AND  DRIERS  237 

from  good  and  full-grown  seeds  should,  when  held  up  to 
the  light,  appear  clear,  pale  and  bright;  it  is  sweet  to  the 
taste  and  has  little  or  no  smell. 

Linseed  oil  may  be  purified  by  the  following  process: 
Place  the  oil  in  a  bottle  or  jar,  and  drop  into  it  some  pow- 
dered whiting,  stir  or  shake  up  the  mixture  and  allow  it 
to  stand  on  the  stove,  or  in  an  oven,  not  too  hot;  the  whit- 
ing will  very  soon  carry  down  all  color  and  impurity  and 
form  a  precipitate  at  the  bottom.  The  refined  oil  at  the  top 
may  then  be  poured  off. 

In  rare  instances,  where  the  least  yellowness  in  the  oil 
would  be  injurious,  nut  or  poppy  oil  may  be  used  with  ad- 
vantage; but,  as  already  stated,  linseed  is  the  oil  used  for 
general  purposes. 

Oils  of  a  nature  suitable  for  painting  are  the  most  com- 
modious and  advantageous  vehicle  to  colors  hitherto  dis- 
covered, first,  because  the  unctuous  consistence  of  them 
renders  their  being  spread  and  laj'ed  on  a  surface  with 
more  evenness  and  expedition  than  any  other  kind  of  ve- 
hicle; secondly,  because,  when  dry,  they  leave  a  strong  glu- 
ten or  tenacious  body  that  holds  the  colors  together,  and 
defends  them  much  more  from  the  injuries  either  of  the  air 
or  accidental  violence  than  the  vehicles  formed  of  water. 
The  principal  and  most  general  quality  to  be  required  in 
oils  is  their  drying  well,  which,  though  it  may  be  assisted 
by  additions,  is  yet  to  be  desired  in  the  oil  itself,  as  the 
effects  of  the  pigments  used  in  it  are  sometimes  such  as 
counteract  the  strongest  driers,  and  occasion  great  delay 
and  trouble  from  the  work  remaining  wet  for  a  great  length 
of  time,  and  frequently  never  becoming  thoroughly  hard. 
There  are  some  oils  that  have  this  fault  to  an  incurable  de- 
gree. The  next  quality  in  oils  is  the  limpidness,  or  approach 
to  a  colorless  state,  which  is  likewise  vei'y  material;  for 
where  they  partake  of  a  brown  or  yellow  color,  such  brown 
or  yellow  necessarily  mixes  itself  with  the  pigments;  but, 
besides   the   brown  color   which   may   be   visible   in   the  oil 


238  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

when  it  is  used,  a  great  increase  of  it  is  apt  to  appear  some 
time  afterwards  when  the  oil  is  not  good.  There  are  throe 
changes  which  oils  of  the  kind  i:)roper  for  painting  are 
liable  to  suffer  in  their  nature,  and  which  affect  them  as 
vehicles,  that  are  mentioned  by  painters  under  one  term, 
that  of  fattening;  notwithstanding,  these  several  changes 
are  brought  about  by  very  different  means,  and  relate  to 
very  different  properties  in  the  oils. 

The  first  is  a  coagulation  by  the  mixture  of  the  oil  with 
some  pigment  improperly  prepared.  This,  indeed,  is  called 
the  fattening  of  the  colors,  but  the  real  change  is  in  the 
oils  and  the  pigments  are  only  the  means  of  producing  it. 
This  change  is  generally  a  separation  of  the  oil  into  two 
different  substances,  the  one  a  viscid  body  which  remains 
combined  with  the  pigments,  the  other  a  thin  fluid  matter 
which  divides  itself  from  the  color  and  thicker  part. 

This  last  apjiears  in  very  various  proportions  under  dif- 
ferent circumstances,  and,  in  some  cases,  it  is  not  found 
where  the  pigments  happen  to  be  of  a  more  earthy  and  alka- 
line nature,  for  then  only  a  thick  clammy  substance  that 
can  scarcely  be  squeer.ed  out  of  the  bladder,  if  it  is  put  up 
in  one,  is  the  result  of  the  fattening.  This  fattening  not 
only  happens  when  oil  and  pigments  are  mixed  together  in 
bladders  or  vessels,  but  sometimes,  after  they  liave  been 
laid  on  the  i3roper  ground  for  them,  instead  of  drying,  the 
separation  will  ensue,  and  one  part  of  the  oil  Avill  run  off 
in  small  drops  or  streams,  while  the  other  will  remain  with 
the  color,  without  showing  the  least  tendency  to  dry. 

The  second  is  the  change  that  takes  place  in  oils  from 
long  keeping.  This,  if  it  could  be  afforded  by  the  oil-manu- 
facturer or  the  paintei',  is  by  far  the  best  method  of  puri- 
fying linseed  and  otlier  oils,  as,  by  thus  keeping,  they  be- 
come lighter  colored  and  acquire  a  more  unctuous  consist- 
ence; and,  though  they  are  said  to  become  too  fat,  they 
are  in  a  very  different  state  from  that  before  mentioned, 
which  is  caused  by  unsuitable  pigments. 


OILS   AND  DRIERS  239 

The  third  is  the  change  produced  by  artificial  means,  from 
exiDosing  the  oil  a  long  time  to  the  sun,  whereby  it  is  freed 
from  its  grosser  and  more  feculent  parts,  and  rendered  color- 
less, and  of  a  more  thick  and  less  fluid  consistence  than 
can  be  produced  by  any  other  treatment;  but,  at  the  same 
time,  it  is  made  less  likely  to  dry,  particularly  when  used 
with  mineral  colors,  as  vei'milion,  Prussian  blue  and  King's 
yellow;  it  likewise  becomes  disqualified  by  other  bad  quali- 
ties that  render  it  of  little  use  as  a  vehicle  for  painting. 
Oils  in  this  state  are  called  also  fat  oils,  though  it  is  a 
change  that  has  not  the  least  affinity  with  either  of  the 
other,  but,  on  the  contrary,  differs  from  both.  In  speaking, 
therefore,  of  the  fattening  of  oils  or  colors,  attention  should 
be  had  to  the  not  confounding  these  three  several  kinds 
one  with  the  other. 

Linseed  oil,  from  its  cheapness,  is  the  only  oil  in  common 
use  for  house  painting,  and  it  may,  by  proper  management, 
be  made  to  answer  for  every  kind  of  work.  This  oil  is 
jjressed  from  the  seed  of  flax,  and  is  best  when  manufac- 
tured in  great  quantities.  The  general  defect  in  linseed  oil 
is  its  brown  color,  and  its  tardiness  in  drying,  both  of  which 
are  in  a  much  greater  degree  found  in  some  parcels  than 
others.  There  is  also  found  such  as,  in  consequence  of  its 
being  mixed  with  the  oil  of  some  other  vegetable  accidental- 
ly growing  near  it,  j^artakes  of  the  nature  of  olive-oil,  and 
cannot  be  made  to  dry  by  any  means  whatever.  The 
faults  of  the  color  and  want  of  drying  quality  may  be 
greatly  reduced,  if  not  entirely  taken  away,  by  keeping 
the  oil  for  a  length  of  time  before  it  is  used;  it  then  be- 
comes fat  in  the  second  sense  of  the  word,  as  before  ex- 
plained, and  is  a  good  vehicle  for  color  without  any  mix- 
ture; but  it  is  generally  used  with  a  proper  drier,  as  it 
never  by  itself  becomes  sufficiently  pure  to  use  with  white 
or  other  light  tints,  without  imparting  a  brown  color  to 
them. 

Poppy   Oil.       This  is  a   colorless  oil,   and  is  in  some   in- 


240  CYCLOPEDIA   OF  PAINTING 

stances  used  for  delicate  works  where  the  length  of  time 
required  for  drying  is  no  object.  It  is  much  celebrated 
in  some  old  books,  under  the  name  of  oil  of  pinks  and  oil 
of  carnations,  as  erroneously  translated  from  the  French 
ceillet,  or  olivet,  a  local  name  for  the  poppy  in  districts 
where  its  oil  is  employed  as  a  substitute  for  that  of  the 
olive.  It  is,  however,  inferior  in  strength,  tenacity  and  dry- 
ing to  linseed  oil,  although  next  to  it  in  these  respects,  and, 
though  it  is  of  a  paler  color,  and  slower  in  changing,  it  be- 
comes ultimately  not  so  yellow,  but  nearly  as  bi'own  and 
dusky,  as  linseed  oil,  and  therefore  is  not  preferred  to  it. 

Nut  Oil  is  the  oil  of  walnuts,  and  is  used  in  ornamental 
painting,  as  it  is  nearly  colorless,  and  can  be  used  with 
flake  white  and  other  delicate  colors  without  the  slightest 
danger  of  tingeing  them. 

Driers.  Driers  are  used  to  hasten  the  drying  of  paints. 
These  are  ground  up  in  oil  and  are  mixed  in  small  quanti- 
ties with  the  color;  some  colors,  in  fact,  will  not  perfectly 
harden  without  them,  but  remain  stickj',  or,  as  painters 
term  it,  tacky,  until  sufficient  dust  has  clung  to  them  to 
render  their  external  surface  at  least  apparently  dry; 
though,  as  can  be  well  understood,  it  will  remain  disagree- 
able to  the  touch  and  much  injured  in  color.  Red  lead  is  a 
good  drier,  but,  of  course,  can  only  be  used  in  situations  or 
in  paints  where  its  color  is  not  objectionable.  Sugar-of- 
lead  is,  however,  the  best  drier,  but  is  more  expensive  than 
others.  Patent  driers,  ground  up  in  oil,  may  be  purchased 
at  the  various  paint  stores. 

Drying  Oils.  All  the  fixed  oils  have  an  attraction,  more 
or  less  powerful,  for  oxygen,  and  by  exposure  to  the  air  they 
either  become  hard  and  resinous,  or  they  only  thicken 
slightly  and  become  sour  and  rancid.  Those  which  exhibit 
the  first  property  in  a  marked  degree — as  the  oils  of  linseed, 
poppy,  rape  and  walnut,  are  called  drying  oils,  and  are 
used  as  vehicles  for  colors  in  painting;  the  others  are  termed 
glutinous  or  non-drying  oils. 


OILS   AND   DRIERS  241 

The  resinifying  or  drying  qualities  of  the  oils  are  greatly 
increased  by  boiling  them,  either  alone  or  along  with  lith- 
arge, sugar-of-lead  or  white  vitriol,  when  the  product  forms 
boiled  oil,  or  drying  oil  of  commerce.  The  efficacy  of  the 
process  depends  on  the  elimination  of  substances  which  im- 
pede the  oxidation  of  the  oil. 

The  following  methods  of  preparing  drying  oils  are  culled 
from  various  sources;  the  quantities  of  each  formula  are 
given  as  in  the  originals,  but  these  can,  of  course,  be  used 
in  relative  proportions  when  the  preparation  is  to  be  car- 
ried on  on  a  smaller  scale. 

Linseed  oil,  1  gallon;  powdered  litharge  %  pound.  Sim- 
mer, with  frequent  stirring,  until  a  pellicle  begins  to  form; 
remove  the  scum,  and  when  it  has  become  cold  and  has 
settled  decant  the  clear  portion.  Dark  colored,  used  by  house 
painters. 

Three  hours  boiling,  with  litharge  one-tenth  in  weight 
of  the  oil,  renders  the  oil  more  perfectly  drying  than  when 
the  boiling  is  continued  for  a  much  longer  time,  when  the 
oil  acquires  a  darker  color  and  so  becomes  injured  in  trans- 
parency the  longer  it  is  boiled.  Merely  heating  linseed  oil 
to  170°  Fahrenheit,  along  with  a  small  quantity  of  peroxide 
of  manganese,  as  completely  renders  it  siccative  as  any 
amount  of  boiling,  and  without  any  deterioration  to  its 
color  or  transparency.  It  appears  probable  that  litharge 
acts  more  by  its  mere  presence  in  inducing  the  oxidation 
of  the  oil  than  by  actually  giving  up  oxygen  to  it,  and 
those  engaged  in  boiling  oils  have  remarked  that  the  old 
litharge,  with  which  linseed  oil  has  been  already  boiled,  acts 
more  energetically  in  producing  the  siccative  property  in 
it  than  new  litharge. 

Pale  Linseed  or  Nut-Oil  1  pint,  litharge,  or  dry  sulphate 
of  lead  in  fine  powder  2  ounces;  mix,  let  it  stand,  frequent- 
ly stirring  it  for  ten  days,  then  set  the  bottle  in  the  sun, 
or  in  a  warm  place  to  settle  and  decant  the  clear  portion. 

Sugar  of  lead   1   pound,   dissolved  in   I/2   gallon  of  rain 


242  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

water;  1  pound  litharge  in  fine  powder  is  then  added,  and 
the  mixture  is  gently  simmered  until  only  a  whitish  sedi- 
ment remains;  1  pound  of  levigated  litharge  is  next  dif- 
fused through  21/2  gallons  of  linseed  oil,  and  the  mixture 
is  gradually  added  to  the  lead  solution  previously  diluted 
with  an  equal  bulk  of  water;  the  whole  is  now  stirred  to- 
gether for  some  hours  with  heat  and  is  lastly  left  to  clear 
itself  by  exposure  in  a  wann  place.  The  lead  solution 
which  subsides  from  the  oil  may  be  used  again  for  the  same 
purpose  by  dissolving  in  it  another  pound  of  litharge  as 
before. 

Into  linseed  oil,  236  gallons,  pour  oil  of  vitriol  6  or  7 
pounds,  and  stir  the  two  together  for  three  hours,  then 
add  a  mixture  of  fuller's  earth  6  pounds,  and  hot  lime  14 
pounds,  and  again  stir  for  three  hours.  Next,  put  the  whole 
into  a  copper,  with  an  equal  quantitj'  of  water,  and  boil 
for  about  three  hours;  lastly,  withdraw  the  fire,  and,  when 
the  whole  is  cold,  draw  off  the  water,  run  the  oil  into  any 
suitable  vessel,  and  let  it  stand  for  a  few  weeks  before 
using. 

Pale  Drying  Oil.  The  oil  should  be  macerated  two  or 
three  days  at  least  upon  about  an  eighth  of  its  weight  of 
litharge,  in  a  warm  place,  occasionally  shaking  the  mixture, 
after  Avhich  it  should  be  left  to  settle  and  clear;  or  it  may 
be  prepared,  without  heat,  by  levigating  the  litharge  in  the 
oU.  Acetate  of  lead  may  be  substituted  for  litharge,  being 
soluble  with  less  heat,  and  its  acid,  being  volatile,  escapes 
during  solution  and  bleaches  the  oil,  to  which  coai-se  smalt 
may  be  added  to  clear  it  by  subsidence,  increase  its  drying 
and  neutralize  its  brown  dolor.  This  affords  pale  drying 
oil  for  light  and  bright  colors. 

Boiled  Oil.  The  above  mixture  of  oil  and  litharge,  gently 
and  carefully  boiled  in  an  open  vessel  till  it  thickens,  be- 
comes strong  drying  oil  for  dark  colors.  Boiled  oil  is 
sometimes   set   on   fire  purposely,  in   making  printer's  var- 


OILS   AND   DRIERS  243 

nish  and  printing  ink,  and  also  for  painting  and  the  prepa- 
ration of  japanner's  gold  size.  As  dark  and  transparent 
colors  are  in  general  comparative  ill  driers,  japanner's  gold 
size  is  sometimes  employed  as  a  powerful  means  of  drying 
them.  This  material  may  be  prepared  in  the  following  man- 
ner: Asphaltum,  litharge  or  red  lead,  burnt  umber  or  man- 
ganese, finely  powdered,  of  each  1  ounce;  stir  them  into  a 
pint  of  linseed  oil  and  simmer  the  mixture  over  a  gentle 
fire,  or  on  a  sand  bath,  till  solution  has  taken  place,  scum 
ceases  to  rise,  and  the  fluid  thickens  on  cooling,  carefully 
guarding  it  from  taking  fire.  If  the  oil  employed  be  at  all 
acid  or  rancid,  a  small  portion  of  powdered  chalk,  or  mag- 
nesia, may  be  usefully  added,  and  will  assist  the  rising  of 
the  scum  and  the  clearing  of  the  oil  by  its  subsidence;  and, 
if  it  be  kept  at  rest  in  a  warm  place,  it  will  clear  itself, 
or  it  may  be  strained  through  a  cloth  and  diluted  with  tur- 
pentine for  use.  Gold  size  for  gilding  is  commonly  made 
of  boiled  oil  and  fine  yellow  ochre. 

There  is  often  a  difficulty  in  obtaining  the  oils  bright; 
after  boiling  or  heating  them  with  the  lead  solutions,  the 
best  way,  on  a  small  scale,  is  either  to  filter  them  through 
coarse  woollen  filtering  pajier,  or  to  expose  the  bottle  for 
some  time  to  the  action  of  the  sun,  or  to  place  it  in  a  warm 
situation;  on  a  large  scale,  the  fine  oils  are  often  filtered 
through  Canton  flannel  bags.  The  litharge  and  sulphate  of 
lead  used  in  the  above  processes  may  be  again  rendered 
available  for  the  same  purpose  by  washing  them  in  hot  wa- 
ter to  remove  the  adhering  mucilage. 

Drier  for  Zinc  White.  Purified  linseed  oil  is  boiled  for 
six  or  eight  hours,  and  to  every  100  pounds  of  boiled  oil 
there  are  added  five  pounds  of  powdered  peroxide  of  man- 
ganese, which  may  be  kept  in  a  bag  like  litharge.  The 
liquid  is  boiled  and  stirred  for  five  or  six  hours  more  and 
then  cooled  and  filtered.  This  drying  oil  is  employed  in  the 
proportion  of  from  five  to  ten  per  cent  of  the  weight  of 
zinc  white,  and  it  should  be  added  during  the  grinding  of 


244  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

the  pigment  in  oil,  the  admixture  then  being  more  thor- 
ough. 

Drying  Oils.  Fifteen  parts  of  lime  made  into  paste  with 
water  are  added  to  100  parts  of  oil  oxidized  by  peroxide 
of  manganese.  The  whole  is  boiled  or  heated  by  steam  un- 
til the  water  has  evaporated;  the  oil  then  forms  with  lime 
a  thick  product  which  is  a  drier.  It  may  be  ground  with 
the  ordinary  oil  of  tuipentine,  or  with  that  of  Venice,  but 
the  dryer  is  less  powerful  than  when  it  has  been  mixed 
with  oxidized  linseed  oil.  Three  to  five  per  cent  of  this 
drier  are  sufficient  for  a  rapid  desiccation. 

Other  driers  may  be  made  by  combining  lime  with  resins 
and  essence  of  turpentine  in  the  proportions  indicated  for 
fixed  oils. 

Powdered  Drier.  Pure  sulphate  of  manganese  1  part, 
pure  acetate  of  manganese  1  part,  calcined  sulphate  of  zinc 
1  part,  white  oxide  of  zinc  97  parts.  The  sulphate  and  ace- 
tate are  ground  in  a  mortar  to  an  impalpable  powder,  which 
is  passed  through  a  metallic  sieve.  Three  parts  of  this  pow- 
der arp  dusted  over  the  97  parts  of  oxide  of  zinc,  spread 
over  a  board  or  a  slab;  the  whole  is  then  thoroughly  mixed 
and  ground.  The  resulting  white  and  impalpable  powder, 
mixed  in  the  proportion  of  V2  to  1  per  cent  with  zinc  white, 
will  enormously  increase  the  drying  property  of  this  prod- 
uct, which  will  become  dry  in  from  ten  to  twelve  hours. 

Volatile  Oils,  procured  by  distillation  from  turpentine  and 
other  vegetable  substances,  are  almost  destitute  of  the 
strength  of  the  expressed  oils,  having  hardly  more  cement- 
ing power  in  painting  than  water  alone,  and  are  principally 
used  as  solvents,  and  media  of  resinous  and  other  sub- 
stances introduced  into  vehicles  and  other  varnishes.  In 
drying  they  partly  evaporate  and  partly,  by  combination 
with  oxygen,  form  resin  and  become  fixed.  They  are  not, 
however,  liable  to  change  color  like  expressed  oils  of  a  dry- 
ing nature,  and,  owing  to  their  extreme  fluidness,  are  useful 
diluents  of  the  latter;   they  have  also  a  bleaching  quality, 


OILS  AND  DRIERS  243 

whereby  they  in  some  degree  correct  the  tendency  of  drying 
and  expressed  oils  to  discolorment.  Of  the  essential  oils, 
the  most  volatile  and  nearest  in  this  respect  to  alcohol  is 
oil  of  sassafras,  but  that  most  used  in  painting  is  the  recti- 
fied oil,  improperly  called  spirits  of  turpentine,  preferable 
only  on  account  of  its  being  thinner  and  more  free  from 
resin.  By  the  action  of  oxj'gen  upon  it,  water  is  either  gen- 
erated or  set  free,  and  the  oil  becomes  thickened,  but  is 
again  rendered  liquid  by  a  boiling  heat  upon  water,  in  which 
the  oxygen  and  resin  are  separated  from  it.  When  colored 
by  heat  or  otherwise,  oil  of  turpentine  may  be  bleached  by 
agitating  some  lime  powder  in  it,  which  will  carry  down 
the  color.  The  great  use  of  this  oil,  under  the  name  of 
turps,  is  to  thin  oil  paints,  and,  in  the  larger  use  thereof, 
to  flatten  white  and  other  colors,  and  to  remove  superfluous 
color  in  graining.  It,  however,  weakens  paint  in  preventing 
its  bearing  out,  and  when  used  entirely  alone,  it  will  not 
fix  the  paint. 

The  name  of  turpentine  is  applied  to  a  liquid,  or  soft 
solid  product  of  certain  coniferous  trees,  and  of  the  Pis- 
tachia  terebinthus. 

There  are  several  varieties,  as  follows:  American  or 
white  turpentine,  Bordeaux  tui-pentine,  Venice  turpeatine, 
Strasburg  turpentine,  Canadian  turpentine,  or  Canadian 
balsam,  Ohio  turpentine  and  Frankincense. 

In  nearly  all  cases  the  processes  of  collecting  are  similar. 
A  hollow  is  cut  in  the  tree  yielding  turpentine,  a  few  inches 
from  the  ground,  and  the  bark  removed  for  the  space  of 
about  18  inches  above  it.  The  turpentine  trickles  down  into 
vessels  placed  to  receive  it.  The  incisions  are  made  about 
the  close  of  March,  and  the  turpentine  continues  to  run 
throughout  the  vegetative  season,  especially  during  the  sum- 
mer months.  In  general  character  these  turpentines  have 
much  in  common;  they  are  oleo-resins,  varying  slightly  in 
color,  consistency  and  smell;  they  enter  into  the  composi- 
tion of  many  varnishes. 


246  CYCLOPEDIA   OF    PAINTING 

Oil  of  turpentine  is  obtained  by  distilling  American  tur- 
pentine, which  has  been  melted  and  strained  with  water  in 
an  ordinal^'  copper  still.  The  distilled  product  is  colorless, 
limpid,  very  fluid  and  possessed  of  a  very  peculiar  smell. 

The  residuum,  after  the  distillation  of  the  oil  or  spirits 
of  turpentine,  is  the  common  resin  of  trade. 


OIL  PAINTING  ON  GLASS. 

There  are  three  principal  modes  of  oil-painting  on  glass, 
as  follows : 

Non- Transparent  Painting  on  Transparent  Glass.  In 
this  mode  the  materials  are  the  same,  and  the  method  the 
same,  except  in  one  particular,  as  that  employed  in  painting 
on  the  front  of  mirrors.  The  sole  particular  in  which  it 
differs  from  this  kind  ol  mirror  painting  is  this:  it  must 
be  much  less  transparent  in  the  shadows  and  half  tints, 
for  the  reason  that  it  has  no  silver  foil  or  ground;  the 
paint,  therefore,  must  have  sufficient  body  in  every  part  to 
prevent  anything  dark  or  bright  behind  from  being  visible 
through  it,  and  thus  affecting  the  coloring.  This  mode  is 
much  used  for  decorating  unsilvered  plates  of  glass  to  be 
inserted  as  panels  in  screens.  As,  however,  the  back  of 
the  screen  is  not  covered  in  the  usual  way,  if  both  sides 
are  likely  to  be  seen,  and  it  be  found  desirable  to  hide  the 
unpleasant  appearance  of  the  back  of  the  painting,  this  can 
only  be  done  by  repainting  on  the  back  of  the  glass  the  sub- 
ject on  the  front. 

The  outlines  must  be  made  to  coincide  with  those  show- 
ing through  and  a  study  of  the  subject  should  be  used  to 
fill  in  within  the  outlines^  but  less  finish  will  usually  suffice. 

Transparent  Painting  on  Transparent  Glass.  This  kind 
of  painting  is  applied  to  windows,  magic-lantern  slides,  etc. 

Mirror-Painting  on  the  Back  of  the  Glass.  This  style  of 
painting  may  be  done  either  before  or  after  the  silvering. 
The  former  is  the  usual  course,  because  simpler  and  less 
toilsome.  In  this  case  it  is  of  the  first  imports  nee  that  the 
outlines,  or  rather  the  boundaries,  should  be  rendered  sharp 
and  true  aiid  with  a  good  bod}'  of  coloi",  otherwise  their 
ragged  or  blurred  edges  will  be  emphasized  by  the  subse- 
quent silvering. 

247 


248  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

The  chief  difficulty  in  painting  on  the  back  of  the  glass 
is  to  calculate  the  effect  each  touch  will  have  when  viewed 
in  front.  On  so  viewing  his  touches  the  artist  will  often 
be  surprised  at  the  discordancy  they  present,  though  he  may 
have  calculated  their  relative  effect  very  carefully.  There 
is  no  expedient  that  will  materially  lessen  this  difficulty. 
All  that  can  be  done  is  to  register,  so  to  speak,  the  value 
of  the  transparent,  and  the  solidity  of  the  opaque  couches 
of  paint,  by  placing  a  sheet  of  white  paper  behind  the 
former,  and  a  sheet  of  black  paper  behind  the  latter. 

The  colors  that  are  more  or  less  transparent  must  be 
applied  at  the  outset,  but  they  will  only  appear  as  such 
and  of  their  proper  tint  and  hue  when  opaque  paint  is  spread 
over  them.  Of  course,  the  transparent  colors  must  not  be 
reserved  for  final  glazing,  the  whole  process  of  ordinary 
painting  being  reversed,  the  last  strokes  of  the  latter  hav- 
ing to  be  the  first  strokes  of  painting  on  the  back  of  a 
mirror. 

As  the  face  of  the  paint  must  be  as  smooth  as  the  pol- 
ished surface  to  which  it  clings,  texture,  for  the  representa- 
tion of  the  surfaces  of  objects,  can  only  be  obtained  by 
means  less  direct,  for  the  most  part,  than  those  available 
for  other  applications  of  oil-painting.  When  using  trans- 
parent colors,  and  texture  be  required,  they  must  be  applied 
in  a  broken  manner,  and  when  using  opaque  colors  for  the 
same  purpose  they  should  be  spread  thinly,  then  scraped, 
and  other  tints  or  hues  passed  over  them  so  as  to  show  be- 
tween the  interstices  of  the  scraping,  according  to  the  re- 
quirements. 

When  the  work  is  otherwise  complete  a  solid  coat  of 
white  should  be  spread  over  the  whole,  and  when  this  is 
dry  a  thick  coat  of  Brunswick  black.  The  first  will  pre- 
vent the  second  from  showing  through,  as  it  might  to  the 
great  detriment  of  the  coloring.  Brunswick  black  is  used 
as  the  overcoat,  because  it  effectually  protects  the  painting 
proper  from  injury  by  the  subsequent  silvering. 


OIL  PAINTING  ON   GLASS  249 

If  the  plale  is  already  silvered  a  separate  study  should 
be  made  and  the  outlines  of  this  study  traced  on  the  back 
of  the  silvering.  This  being  done,  the  portion  of  the  silver- 
ing that  the  painting  must  occupy  is  etched  away  by  a 
scalpel  or  other  sharp  blade,  taking  care  not  to  scratch  the 
glass.  The  etching  may  be  effected  and  outlines  obtained 
without  much  trouble  if  the  silvering  has  been  done  by  the 
mercurial  process.  But  it  is  not  so  with  the  modern  silver- 
ing, this  being  covered  with  a  coat  of  hard  varnish-paint 
that  is  almost  impossible  to  remove  without  leaving  ragged 
edges.  Only  for  a  large  plate  to  be  viewed  at  a  distance 
should  it  be  attempted,  and  then,  so  great  is  the  labor  in- 
volved, it  would  generally  prove  more  economical  to  ex- 
change the  plate  for  a  new  one  unsilvered. 

All  painting  on  the  back  of  mirrors  has,  however,  inevit- 
able defects,  which  are  apt  to  prove  somewhat  antipathetic 
to  artists.  Its  difficulties,  while  augmenting  the  cost  to  the 
purchaser,  preclude  commensurate  results.  For  the  reason 
that  the  painter  cannot  see  the  progress  of  his  work  with 
the  usual  facility,  the  coloring  can  hardly  be  very  har- 
monious. To  mix  each  first  touch  of  paint  to  the  required 
hue  or  tint  and  lay  it  on  at  once  in  the  right  place  is  not 
easy  to  an  experienced  artist,  but  the  difficulty  is  enor- 
mously increased  when  the  work  has  to  be  turned  to  ascer- 
tain how  the  last  touch  behaves  relatively  to  all  those  which 
preceded  it.  The  coloring  must  also  be  comparatively  dead, 
owing  to  the  opaque  ground.  The  painting  can  hardly  ap- 
pear other  than  flat  and  monotonously  smooth,  or  with  little 
spirit  of  handling,  or  touch,  descriptive  of  texture  and  ex- 
pression of  light.  And,  although  by  this  method  there  are 
no  reflections  from  edges  of  the  painting  when  the  mirrox 
is  viewed  at  an  angle,  yet  the  painting  is  obscured  by  re- 
flections from  the  surface  of  the  glass  before  it,  as  well 
as  lowered  in  brilliancy  by  the  thickness  and  any  green- 
ness of  the  glass. 


PAINTING  A  BATH  TUB. 

The  method  for  painting-  an  ordinaiy  room  is  the  plan 
which  is  followed  in  most  cases  of  painting.  The  method 
of  painting  a  bath  tub,  however,  is  an  entirely  different 
one.  The  wear  and  tear  of  an  ordinai-y  bath  tub  is  very 
gTeat ;  the  heat  of  the  water  is  in  itself  very  trying  to  any 
paint  or  enamel,  especially  when,  as  often  happens,  the 
water  is  allowed  to  enter  the  bath  in  a  nearh'  boiling  state, 
there  to  mingle  with  the  colder  water.  It  will  be  a  hint  of 
value  to  know  that  the  hotter  the  water  the  greater  is  the 
wear  and  tear  on  the  paint  material,  and  this  whether  the 
bath  tub  is  of  the  highest  quality  or  is  of  a  cheaj^er  make. 
But  apart  from  the  heat  of  the  water,  the  soap  and  grease 
which  abounds  in  the  bath  room  is  in  itself  a  means  of  de- 
struction to  the  paint.  In  renovating  an  old  bath  tub,  the 
proper  plan  would  be  to  have  it  taken  out  and  sent  to  an 
enamelling  firm,  who  paint  it  in  a  special  manner  and  with 
a  special  paint,  which  is  known  as  baking  enamel.  This 
is  a  description  of  paint  specially  made  for  articles  to  be 
placed  in  a  stove  of  high  heat  whence  the  enamel  is  greatly 
hardened.  The  trouble  and  expense,  however,  of  taking  a 
bath  tub  out  and  sending  it  away  in  this  manner  is  very 
great  and  many,  therefore,  prefer  to  paint  their  own  bath 
tubs,  if  even  they  have  to  repeat  the  operations  everj'  spring. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  thoroughly  clean  the  sur- 
face and  this,  as  in  all  operations  of  repainting,  is  very 
important.  At  the  risk  of  being  tedious  the  necessitj'  of 
getting  every  portion  of  the  surface  absolutely  clean  before 
the  paint  is  applied  must  be  emphasized,  and  in  this  case 
it  must  be  added  absolutely  dry  also.  Sometimes  the  fau- 
cets of  the  batli  tub  leak  a  little;  if  so  this  must  be  stopped 
before   the   repainting  is   commenced,   otherwise   the  job   is 

250 


PAINTING   A   BATHTUB  251 

hopeless.  The  best  way  of  cleaning  a  bath  tub  is  to  first 
thoroughly  scrub  with  soap  and  water,  using  hot  water  and 
plenty  of  elbow  grease;  any  ordinary  pure  soap  answers 
the  purpose.  The  next  thing  is  to  rinse  freely  with  cold 
water  with  a  sponge  or  cloth,  but  even  this,  as  a  rule,  does 
not  remove  all  the  grease,  and  a  further  operation  is  nec- 
essary to  the  same  end  of  scrubbing  with  powdered  pumice 
stone  and  water.  A  small  scrubbing  brush  is  moistened 
with  water  and  dipped  in  the  dry  pumice  stone  and  then 
the  surface  is  rubbed  over  briskly  so  as  to  literally  grind 
off  any  dirt  or  gi"ease  which  may  remain.  A  thorough  sluic- 
ing with  cold  water  completes  the  process  and  the  bath  tub 
is,  when  dry,  ready  for  the  first  coat  of  paint.  If  time 
is  limited  a  clean  cloth  may  be  used  to  wipe  off  the  water 
from  the  surface,  but  it  is  better  to  let  the  work  remain  for 
24  hours  until  it  is  thoroughly  dry. 

Sometimes  it  will  be  found  that  the  previous  coats  of 
paint  have  chipped  off  in  places;  in  that  case,  if  a  really 
nice  finish  is  required,  it  will  be  necessary  to  remove  all 
the  paint  and  start  from  the  iron,  and  that  is  a  long  and 
tedious  process. 

The  paint  to  be  mixed  for  this  job  is  either  white  lead 
or  zinc  white,  thinned  with  turpentine  only,  that  is  with- 
out oil,  but  with  the  addition  of  a  tablespoonful  of  gold 
size.  This  paint  should  be  somewhat  thin  and  it  will  dry 
without  gloss.  It  is  called  by  painters,  sharp  color.  The 
advantage  it  possesses  is  that  it  forms  a  very  thin  coat, 
much  thinner  than  ordinary  oil  paint,  and  it  may,  there- 
fore, be  applied  much  quicker,  and  being  thin  it  is  less  likely 
to  shrivel  or  crack  under  the  influence  of  hot  water.  If  it 
is  desired  to  tint  the  paint  this  can  readily  be  done  by 
adding  a  little  of  the  color  required.  For  instance,  sea 
green  can  be  made  by  adding  a  little  light  Brunswick  green 
and  a  little  raw  sienna  to  the  white  lead  or  zinc  white.  As 
a  rule  bath  tubs  look  best  a  very  light  color.  A  light  pink 
looks  well,  and  so  does  a  light  blue. 


252  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

An  ordinary  paint  brush  will  be  used  and  care  must  be 
taken  not  to  miss  any  small  parts,  and  not  to  apply  the 
paint  too  thick;  a  very  thin,  even  coat  is  what  is  to  be 
aimed  at.  The  coat  of  paint  will  dry  in  an  hour,  but  it  is 
better  to  leave  it  for  8  or  10  hours  before  applying  the  sec- 
ond coat.  A  good  plan,  if  the  weather  is  dry,  is  to  apply 
one  coat  early  in  the  morning  and  the  second  at  night.  If 
the  paint  shows  any  sig-ns  of  roughness  it  may  be  lightly 
rubbed  over  with  very  fine  sandpaper.  In  that  case  the 
bath  tub  must  be  dusted  out  before  a  second  coat  is  ap- 
plied. As  a  rule  three  coats  will  be  ample  and  two  will 
usually  suffice.  If  the  paint  is  properly  mixed  and  properly 
applied  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  determining  when  the 
surface  has  received  a  sufficient  number  of  coats;  that  point 
will  be  reached  when  the  tub  is  quite  uniform  in  appear- 
ance. The  beginner  will  be  likely  to  view  the  work,  how- 
ever, at  this  stage  with  some  doubt,  owing  to  the  unfamiliar 
appearance  of  the  flat  surface,  without  gloss.  Persons  have 
abandoned  the  work  at  this  stage  under  the  impression  that 
the  unfamiliar  appearance  looked  too  much  like  whitewash. 
However,  this  appearance  is  quite  what  might  be  expected, 
but  it  will  quickly  be  removed  by  the  next  process  which 
is  that  of  ajDplying  a  coat  of  varnish. 

Now  it  must  be  very  distinctly  understood  that  ordinary 
varnish,  even  of  the  best  quality,  is  useless  for  painting 
a  bath  tub.  It  must  be  special  bath  varnish,  or  one  made 
specially  for  resisting  hot  water.  There  should  not  be 
any  difficulty  in  getting  a  bath  varnish  at  any  good  paint- 
ers' supply  house.  Most  of  the  best  varnish  firms  manu- 
facture excellent  bath  tub  varnishes,  which  may  be  abso- 
lutely relied  upon,  and  as  the  quantity  required  for  an 
ordinary  bath  tub  is  but  very  small,  the  cost  is  nominal. 

In  applying  the  varnish  it  should  be  remembered  that  a 
thin  coat  only  is  required,  and  it  is  far  better  to  give  a 
second  coat  after  the  first  coat  is  dry  if  a  high  degree  of 
brilliancy  is  required  than  it  is  to  apply  a  thick  coat  at  one 


PAINTING  A  BATHTUB  253 

operation.  Dip  just  the  point  of  the  brush  in  the  varnish. 
Use  the  brush  lightly  first  one  way  and  then  the  other, 
finally  drawing  it  lightly  in  one  direction  to  smooth  out 
the  brush  marks. 

Another  little  point  which  seems  so  obvious  as  to  be 
hardly  worth  mentioning  is  to  take  care  that  every  part  of 
the  surface  is  reached  by  the  varnishing  brush.  To  ensure 
this  is  much  more  difficult  than  would  appear  at  first  sight, 
because  the  varnish  is  almost  colorless,  and  when  one  looks 
directly  at  the  surface  it  is  almost  impossible  to  see  which, 
part  is  varnished  and  which  is  not.  It  is  easy,  therefore, 
to  skip  a  small  portion  of  the  surface  without  noticing  it. 
The  only  way  to  provide  against  this  is  every  now  and  then 
to  look  at  the  surface  from  a  point  at  which  the  light  re- 
flects when  the  lines  between  the  varnished  and  unvar- 
nished surface  will  be  readily  discerned. 


PAIXTIXG  IX  DISTEMPER. 

This  mode  of  coloiing,  which,  when  applied  to  fine  art 
purposes,  is  termed  tempera  painting,  is  undoubtedly  the 
most  ancient,  and  derives  its  name  from  the  fact  that  colors 
are  mixed  or  tempered  with  some  liquid  or  medium  to  bind 
their  separate  particles  to  each  other,  and  to  the  surface 
on  which  the  paint  is  applied. 

The  Italian  noun  temi>era  admits  of  the  widest  applica- 
tion, and  would  include  any  medium,  even  oil;  but,  in  its 
resti'icted  and  proper  acceptation,  it  means  a  vehicle  in 
which  the  yolk  of  egg,  beaten  sometimes  with  the  white, 
is  the  chief  ingredient,  diluted  as  required  with  the  milky 
juices  expressed  from  the  shoots  of  the  fig-tree.  This  is 
the  painting  strictly  termed  a  nuovo  by  the  Italians.  Vine- 
gar probably  replaced  the  fig-tree  juice  among  the  northern 
artists,  from  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  the  latter,  and  in 
modern  use  vinegar  is  substituted.  Vinegar  should  be  used 
to  prevent  the  putrefaction  of  the  yolk  of  egg,  but  the 
early  Italian  painters  preferred  the  egg  vehicle  Avhen  it  had 
been  suffered  to  stand  until  it  had  become  decomposed, 
hence  the  phrase  "a  putrido. " 

The  artist  is  often  compelled  to  have  recourse  to  very 
offensive  media  to  make  known  his  most  refined  revela- 
tions. On  walls,  and  for  coarser  Avork,  such  as  painting  on 
linen,  warm  size  was  occasionally  used,  but  the  egg  vehicle, 
undiluted,  was  generally  preferred  for  altar-pieces  on  wood. 
For  various  purposes,  and  at  different  periods,  however, 
milk,  beer,  wine  and  media  composed  of  water,  and  more  or 
less  glutinous  ingredients,  soluble  at  first  in  water,  such 
as  gums,  have  also  been  used.  Such  are  the  media  or  velu- 
cles  described  by  the  chief  Italian  writers,  as  used  in  the 
days   of   Cimabue,   Giotto    and   Fra   Angelico,   and   by    the 

254 


PAINTING  IN  DISTEMPER  255 

early  painters  before  the  invention  and  improvement  of 
oil  painting.  The  tiner  egjj  tempera  in  diy  climates  has 
been  found  to  attain  so  tirm  a  consistence  as  to  withstand 
ordinary  solvents.  The  nse  of  wine  in  diluting  these  glu- 
tinous vehicles  was  common  for  a  long  period.  Buffalmacco, 
of  wliom  so  many  humorous  stories  are  told  by  Boccaccio 
and  Vasari,  is  related  to  have  persuaded  some  nuns,  for 
whom  he  painted,  to  supply  him  with  their  choicest  wine, 
ostensibly  for  the  purpose  of  diluting  the  colors,  but  really 
to  be  imbibed  by  the  thirsty  painter  himself.  The  northern 
artists  were  sometimes  compelled  to  content  themselves  with 
beer.  In  the  works  of  the  northern  tempera  painters  there 
are,  however,  very  marked  differences  observable  in  the 
impasto  or  bodj^  of  coloi-s.  It  is  certain,  therefore,  that 
these  painters  employed  media  of  different  degrees  of  con- 
sistenc.v.  In  the  distemper  of  scene-painting,  the  medium 
is  weak  size  of  glue,  but  plaster  of  paris,  sufficiently  dilut- 
ed, is  worked  with  the  colors.  The  carbonate  of  lime,  or 
whiting,  is  less  active  as  a  basis  for  colors  than  the  pure 
lime  of  fresco,  but  it  is  entirely  destructive  of  transparency. 
When  the  more  viscid  media  were  employed  by  the  tempera 
l^ainters,  the  effect  must,  with  their  purer  use  of  the  colors, 
some  of  which  were,  moreover,  transparent,  have  been  very 
lustrous  and  powerful  in  comparison  Avith  modern  scene- 
painters'  distemper,  and  these  qualities  were  heightened 
by  the  addition  of  a  strong  varnish;  still,  however,  tempera 
fell  far  short  of  oil  painting  in  richness  and  transparency. 
The  carbonate  of  lime,  or  whiting,  employed  as  a  basis 
is,  however,  less  active  than  the  pure  lime  of  fresco.  The 
vehicles  of  both  modes  are  the  same,  and  their  practice  is 
often  combined  in  the  same  work.  Water  is  their  common 
vehicle,  and  to  give  adhesion  to  the  tints  and  colors  in  dis- 
temper painting,  and  make  them  keep  their  place,  they  are 
variously  mixed  with  the  size  of  glue,  prepared  commonly 
by  dissolving  about  4  ounces  of  glue  in  a  gallon  of  water. 
Too  much   of  the   glue   disposes   the  painting   to   crack  and 


256  CYCLOPEDIA  OP  PAINTING 

peel  from  the  ground,  while  with  too  little  it  is  friable  and 
deficient  of  strength.  In  some  cases  glue  may  be  abated, 
or  altogether  dispensed  with,  by  employing  plaster  of  paris 
sufficiently  diluted  and  worked  into  the  colors,  by  which 
they  will  acquire  the  consistency  and  appearance  of  oil 
painting,  without  employing  their  limpidness  or  allowing 
the  colors  to  separate,  while  they  will  acquire  a  good  sur- 
face, and  keep  their  place  in  the  dry  with  the  strength  of 
fresco,  and  without  being  liable  to  mildew,  to  which  animal 
glue  is  disposed,  and  to  which  milk,  and  other  vehicles 
recommended  in  this  mode,  are  also  subject. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  distempering  has  its  manifold 
advantages,  and  that  when  well  done  it  possesses  a  degree 
of  clearness  and  brightness,  especially  in  white,  pink,  blue 
and  lilac,  which  is  not  attainable  in  oil  colors,  owing  to  the 
admixture  of  the  various  oils,  and  to  the  changes  likely  to 
occur  in  them  subsequent  to  the  application  of  the  colors, 

A  fruitful  cause  of  failure  in  distemper  work  is  the 
neglect  of  proper  precaution  in  preparing  the  surfaces  to 
be  colored,  the  great  point  at  starting,  assuming  that  the 
wall  has  b'een  well  smoothed,  or  if  necessary'  scraped,  in 
order  that  the  surface  may  present  no  roughness  or  inequal- 
ities whatever.  The  first  stage  is  but  seldom  attended  to 
by  painters,  who  assume  that  the  plasterer,  as  a  matter  of 
course,  leaves  the  wall  properly  finished,  but  this  must  not 
always  be  taken  for  granted.  At  all  events  even  if  the 
work  has  been  carried  as  far  as  it  is  the  plasterer's  duty 
to  take  it,  there  is  no  reason  why  the  next  stage  should  not 
be  considered  to  belong  to  the  painter,  who  is  so  well  aware 
of  the  conditions  on  which  a  good  result  to  his  work  de- 
pends. 

The  process  consists  in  this,  the  plasterers  having  left  the 
walls,  the  painters  take  them  in  hand.  With  a  bucket  of 
water,  a  sponge,  a  rag,  and  a  slab  of  wood,  6  inches  broad 
and  7  or  8  inches  long,  on  the  back  of  which  a  handle 
made  of  leather  is  placed,  and  it  must  be  mentioned  that 


PAINTING  IN  DISTEMPER  257 

th'e  wood  is  cut  crosswise,  each  board  being,  as  it  were,  a 
slice  of  a  tree.  The  workman  wets  the  wall  with  his 
sponge,  and  applies  his  wood  brush,  for  this  the  instru- 
ment practically  becomes,  since  the  ends  of  the  fibers,  di- 
rected towards  the  wall,  act  like  so  many  closely  packed 
hairs. 

The  wood  brush  is  rapidly  worked  in  a  circular  direc- 
tion, the  wall  being  kept  moistened  with  the  sponge,  and 
finally  the  surface  is  washed  clean  and  well  rubbed  with 
the  cloth,  and  then  allowed  to  become  thoroughly  dry.  A 
smooth  surface  is  thus  produced,  and  the  next  process  is  to 
stop  the  absorbent  properties  of  the  plaster,  and  here  the 
process  ends.  The  mixture  used  in  this  country  is  thor- 
oughly well  adapted  for  its  purpose,  and  is  compounded 
in  the  following  manner: 

Saturate  about  12  pounds  of  best  whiting  with  water, 
and  beat  it  up,  with  a  constant  addition  of  water,  until  the 
mixture  assumes  the  consistency  of  a  soft  paste.  Add 
sufficient  size  to  bind  the  color,  2  ounces  of  alum  and  2 
ounces  of  soft  soap,  each  dissolved  in  water.  Mix  all  these 
ingredients  thoroughly  well,  and  strain  through  a  coarse 
cloth  or  metal  strainer.  Care  should  be  taken  that  too  much 
size  is  not  used,  in  fact,  rather  than  use  the  mixture  alto- 
gether too  strong,  it  is  preferable  to  give  two  coats  of  me- 
dium consistency,  which,  in  effect,  are  better  than  a  single 
thick  one.  If  the  wall  is  known  to  be  damp,  no  amount  of 
care,  and  no  application  on  the  one  side  of  a  wall,  will  keep 
it  dry  if  it  is  pervious  to  moisture  on  the  other  or  from 
below.  The  source  of  the  evil  must  be  sought  for,  and 
efforts  should,  in  the  first  place,  be  applied  to  the  removal 
of  the  cause  rather  than  to  ameliorating  the  injurious 
effects. 

The  first  and  most  general  application  of  distempering 
is  the  process  known  as  calcimining.  In  commencing  to 
calcimine,  the  walls  should  be  prepared  as  described  above, 
but,  of  course,  if  they  have  been  colored  before,  they  will 


258  CYCLOPEDU   OF   PAINTING 

merely  require  washing  with  clean  water,  scraping  smooth 
the  rough  patches,  the  cracks  being  stopped  and  made  good, 
the  whole  being  then  passed  over  with  the  wood  brush.  Care 
should  be  taken  that  all  the  scrapings  and  other  debris  are 
swept  away  before  the  walls  are  finally  rubbed  down  with 
a  cloth  and  the  coloring  is  commenced.  The  calcimine  is 
made  by  mixing  whiting,  which  has  previously  been  allowed 
to  soak  for  twelve  or  fourteen  hours  in  water,  to  about 
the  consistency  of  cream,  care  being  observed  that  the  mix- 
ture is  very  smooth.  One  teacupful  of  size  is  then  to  be 
added  to  two  gallons  of  the  whitewash,  or,  if  a  perfectly 
white  wash  is  required,  potato  starch  may  be  used.  In  lay- 
ing on  the  wash,  a  large  flat  brush  is  employed,  and,  if  this 
is  not  overcharged,  a  ceiling  or  walls  may,  with  a  certain 
amount  of  care,  be  white  or  color  washed  with  little  or 
no  splashing. 

The  following  mixture  will  be  found  useful  for  common 
work:  ^2  bushel  of  lime,  1  pound  common  salt,  ^2  pound 
of  sulphate  of  zinc,  and  1  gallon  of  sweet  milk. 

For  brickwork  exposed  to  damp:  i^  peck  of  fresh  well- 
burnt  lime,  with  water  sufficient  to  make  it  into  a  thin 
paste,  pass  through  a  fine  sieve,  add  a  gallon  of  clear  salt 
which  has  been  dissolved  in  boiling  watei*.  Make  a  thin 
paste  of  1  pound  of  rice  flour  and  i/4  pound  of  best  glue, 
mix  this  paste,  whilst  hot,  with  the  previously  made  com- 
pound, and  add  1/4  pound  of  Spanish  whiting  dissolved  in 
1  quart  of  water.  Stir  all  well  together,  cover  over,  and 
let  the  whole  stand  for  a  week,  when  it  is  to  be  applied 
whilst  quite  hot. 

In  order  to  produce  good  work,  two  things  are  essen- 
tially necessary  in  the  mixing  of  the  distemper,  namely, 
clean  and  well-washed  whiting  and  pure-jellied  size.  The 
whiting  should  be  put  in  to  soak  with  sufficient  soft  water 
to  cover  it  well  and  penetrate  its  bulk.  When  the  whiting 
is  sufficiently  soaked,  the  water  should  be  poured  off,  which 
will   remove  any  rust  or  foreign  matter  from   the  whiting, 


PAINTING   IN   DISTEMPER  259 

it  should  then  be  beaten  up  or  stirred  until  all  the  lumps 
are  broken,  and  it  becomes  a  stiff,  smooth  paste.  A  good 
workman  will  do  this  carefully  with  his  hand,  and  will 
manipulate  it  until  it  is  quite  smooth,  but  it  may  be  done 
most  effectually  with  a  broad  stick  or  spatula,  and  then 
strained  through  a  metal  or  other  strainer.  The  size  should 
now  be  added,  and  the  two  lightly  but  effectually  mixed  to- 
gether. Care  should  be  taken  not  to  break  the  jelly  of  the 
size  any  more  than  can  be  avoided,  and  this  may  be  best 
done  by  gently  stirring  the  mixture  with  the  hand.  If  the 
jellied  state  is  retained  intact,  the  color  will  work  cool,  and 
lay  on  smooth  and  level.  The  size,  whether  made  of  parch- 
ment clippings,  glue,  or  any  other  material,  should  be  dis- 
solved in  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  to  form  a  weak  jelly 
when  cold.  In  j^ractice  we  find  that  distemper  mixed  with 
jellied  size  will  lay  on  better  and  make  a  better  job  than 
when  the  size  is  used  hot.  Color  mixed  on  the  former  plan 
works  cool  and  floats  nicely,  while  the  latter  works  drj', 
and  drags  and  gathers,  thus  making  a  rough  ceiling  or  wall, 
and  the  difference  in  the  labor  required  is  very  much  in 
favor  of  jellied  size.  A  little  alum  added  to  the  distemper 
has  a  good  effect  in  hardening,  and  helps  it  to  dry  out  solid 
and  even. 

In  distemper  painting,  or,  as  it  is  more  frequently  called, 
calcimining,  the  base  generally  used  for  all  the  tints  is 
the  finest  whiting,  which  is  prepared  in  large  quantities  by 
various  manufacturers.  All  the  colors  should  either  be 
ground  very  fine,  or  should  be  washed  over,  so  as  to  ensure 
the  most  minute  division  of  their  particles. 

It  will  require  two  coats,  and  sometimes  more,  of  any 
of  the  tints  to  cover  plaster  well,  and  to  bear  out  with 
absolute  iiniformity.  When  old  plastering  has  become  dis- 
figured by  stains,  it  is  necessary,  in  the  first  place,  to  prop- 
erly scrape  and  prepare  the  wall,  and  then  to  give  it  one 
or  two  coats  of  white  lead  ground  in  oil,  the  second  being 
mixed    with    an    additional   quantity   of   turpentine,    this,   if 


260  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

well  and  sufficiently  done,  will  cover  all  the  stains,  and  will 
take  the  size  colors  very  kindly. 

In  order  to  produce  an  absolutely  level  tint  in  distem- 
per, great  care  should  be  exercised  in  cai'rying  on  the  work. 
Whilst  the  color  is  being-  laid  on,  the  windows  and  doors 
should  be  closed,  and  all  draughts  prevented,  so  that  the 
wash  may  not  dry  too  quicklj',  in  which  case  the  brush 
drags,  and  all  piecings  or  brush  marks  will  show  when 
quite  dry,  but  the  moment  the  work  is  finished,  all  windows 
and  doors  are  to  be  opened,  in  order  to  afford  free  ingress 
to  the  fresh  air,  for  the  moment  the  whole  of  the  color 
is  laid  on,  the  sooner  it  dries  the  better.  In  order  to  ensure 
uniformity  in  drying,  and  to  avoid  parts  becoming  shady, 
the  wash  must  be  laid  on  evenly,  and  when  the  ground  is 
once  covered,  no  portion  of  it  should  be  retouched,  for 
such  portion  would  then  receive  an  additional  coat,  and 
would  without  fail  present  a  more  solid  and  brighter  ap- 
pearance than  the  rest,  at  the  same  time  there  is  every 
chance  that  the  brush,  passing  over  the  half-dry  or  partially 
set  color  underneath,  would  rub  up  some  of  it,  and  cause 
a  rough  appearance,  whilst  the  edges  of  the  retouched  part 
would  be  visible,  giving  the  idea  of  a  patch  having  been 
applied  over  the  spot. 

The  colors  of  which  the  various  tints  are  to  be  composed 
should  be  ground  up  separately,  and  should  be  carefully 
added  to  the  white  body.  As  far  as  can  be  calculated,  as 
much  of  any  particular  tint  as  ma}^  be  required  for  one 
room  or  job  should  be  compounded  at  once,  to  avoid  the 
trouble  of  matching.  Powder  color  should  never  be  added 
to  the  body  white\  If  only  a  small  quantity  of  any  addi- 
tional color  is  required,  it  should  be  well  ground  on  a  slab, 
and  taken  on  the  point  of  the  palette  knife,  or  at  the  end  of 
a  stick,  and  thus  mixed  with  the  general  mass.  Where  this 
is  not  done,  the  white  gathers  around  each  separate  particle 
of  the  powder  color,  making  a  minute  ball,  with  a  colored 
center  and  as  it  were  a  white  shell,  a  number  of  these  be- 


PAINTING   IN   DISTEMPER  261 

come  agglutinated.  The  inexperienced  woikman  thinks  the 
color  is  well  mixed,  because  he  has,  during  mixing,  lost 
sight  of  the  particles  of  color,  but  when  he  comes  to  spread 
the  wash  on  the  wall,  the  dark  specks  emerge  from  their 
temporary  cases,  and,  as  they  are  dragged  along  by  the 
brush,  cause  lines  and  streaks  of  more  or  less  breadth,  ac- 
cording to  the  number  of  particles  which  have  been  bound 
together.  These  may  not  perhaps  be  noticed  whilst  the 
color  is  wet,  but  will  soon  appear  as  it  dries,  and  the  evil 
result  will  not  be  in  appearance  only,  for  as  these  specks 
of  color  have  not  been  bound  by  the  size  with  which  the 
whole  mass  has  been  mixed,  the  spots  and  streaks  caused 
by  them  will  rub  off,  leaving  the  original  color  of  the  plas- 
ter, or  of  the  previous  wash,  visible.  Sometimes,  too,  when 
the  powder  color  is  of  a  heavier  character  than  the  mass,  it 
finds  its  way  to  the  bottom  of  the  bucket  or  pot,  and  when 
the  quantity  is  nearly  used,  the  last  part  of  it  will  be  found 
to  become  gradually  darker  than  that  previously  used, 
whilst  if  the  brush  be  allowed  to  touch  the  bottom,  it  will 
bring  up  a  quantity  of  dark  color  which  will  be  deposited 
with  the  first  stroke  on  the  wall. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  in  mixing  tints,  for  some  colors, 
such  as  Prussian  blue,  are  so  strong  that  a  very  little  of 
them  will  produce  the  desired  effect,  and  thus,  if  they  are 
used  without  consideration,  it  becomes  necessary  to  add 
more  and  more  white,  a  greater  quantity  of  the  tint  required 
is  compounded,  and  waste  results.  The  safer  plan  is  to  mix 
a  small  quantity  of  the  tint  in  a  jar  or  on  a  piece  of  glass, 
and,  having  spread  this  on  a  piece  of  paper,  the  painter 
will  be  able,  when  it  is  dry,  to  judge  of  the  shade,  and 
to  form  an  idea  as  to  the  relative  qualities  of  the  different 
colors  required.  Other  colors  again,  such  as  orange  lead, 
are  of  such  density,  that  they  will  separate  from  the  others 
and  sink  to  the  bottom,  and  therefore  tints  compounded 
with  these  must  be  worked  in  a  size  jelly,  this,  too,  will 
be  learnt  by  trial  and  experience. 


262  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

Nearly  all  of  the  colors  given  herewith  may  be  used  in 
either  oil  or  distemper  painting,  the  white,  in  the  one  case, 
being  white  lead,  diluted  with  oil  and  tui'pentine,  and,  in 
the  other,  whiting  mixed  with  size. 

STRAW  COLOR. 

White  lead,  Massicot  (in  oil). 
Whiting,  Dutch  pink    (in  distemper). 
Whiting,  Chrome  j'ellow. 

LAVENDER,  LILAC,  AND  FRENCH  GRAYS. 

Produced  according  to  the  predominance  of  white,  blue  or 
red. 

White,  Lake,  Indigo. 

"  Lake,  Prussian  blue. 

"  Indian   Red,  Prussian  blue. 

"  Vermilion,   Prussian   blue. 

"  Indigo,  Rose   pink. 

PEARL  GRAY. 
White,  Black,  Prussian  blue. 

GRAY  TINTS.     (Of  a  blue  hue.) 
White,  Verditer. 
"        Blue  black. 
"        Lamji  black. 
"       Indigo. 

GRAY  TINTS.     (Of  a  brown  hue.) 

White,  Madder  brown,  Prussian  blue. 

"        Madder  brown,  Prussian  blue,  Yellow  ochre. 

"        Indian    red,   Indigo. 

"        Light  red,  Prussian  blue. 

"        Burnt  sit'iiiia,  Lake,  Tndijjo. 


PAINTING   IN  DISTEMPER  263 

BROWN  TINTS. 

White,  Lake,  Prussian  blue,  Yellow  ochre. 
Lake,  Indigo,  Yellow  ochre. 
Raw  sienna,  Madder  lake,  Prussian  blue. 
Light  red,  Indigo. 
Vandyke  brown.  Lake,  Indigo. 
Burnt  sienna.  Indigo. 
Burnt   sienna,   Lake. 

GREEN  TINTS. 

White,  Italian  pink,  Antwerp  blue. 
"        Italian  pink,  Prussian  blue. 
"        Yellow  ochre.  Indigo. 
"        Burnt  sienna.  Indigo. 
"        Brown  pink.  Indigo. 
"        Raw   umber,  Indigo. 

PEA  GREEN. 
White,  French  gi-een. 
' '        Olympian   green. 
"        Brunswick   green. 
"        Prussian  blue.  Chrome  yellow. 

SAGE  GREEN. 

White,  Prussian  blue.  Raw  umber. 
"        Antwerp   blue,   Stone  ochre. 

OLIVE  GREEN. 
White,  Raw  umber,  Prussian  blue. 

ORANGE  TINT8. 

White,  French   yellow. 
' '        Orange   lead. 
"        Dutch  pink. 
*'       Chrome  yellow,  Vermilion. 


264  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

PINK    TINTS. 
White,  Rose  pink. 
"        Crimson  lake. 
"        Scarlet  lake. 

SALMON  COLOR. 
Wtite,  Venetian  red. 
' '       Vermilion. 

PEACH  TINTS. 

White,  Vermilion,  Indian  red,  Purple  brown. 

"       Vermilion,  Indian  red,  Purple  brown,  Burnt  stone 
ochre. 

VIOLET  TINTS. 
White,  Vermilion,  Prussian  blue,  Lamp  black. . 

CHOCOLATE. 
White,  Spanish  brown,  Venetian  red,  Vegetable  black. 

SKY  BLUE. 
White,  Prussian  blue. 

FLESH  TINT. 
White,  Light  red,  Yellow  ochre. 

"       Lake,  Vermilion,  Naples  yellow. 

FAWN. 

White,  Burnt  sienna. 

"       Burnt  umber,  Venetian  red 
"        Stone  ochre,  Vermilion, 

BUFF. 
White,  Yellow  ochre,  Venetian  red. 
Cream-color  is  produced  by  a  great  preponderance  of  white. 


PAINTING  IN  DISTEMPER  265 

DRAB  AND  STONE  COLOR. 
White,  Burnt  umber. 
"       Raw    umber. 
"       Yellow  ochre. 
"       Yellow  ochre,  Lamp  black. 
"       Raw  umber,  Lamp  black. 

LEAD  COLOR. 
White,  Black. 

"        Black,   Indigo. 

It  must  of  course  be  understood  that  the  colors  are  not 
to  be  mixed  in  equal  quantities,  but  in  such  proportions  as 
will  produce  the  required  hue,  the  slightest  predominance 
of  any  one  of  the  pigments  gives  the  prevailing  tone  of  the 
tints,  whilst  the  addition  of  a  further  quantity  of  white  pro- 
duces all  the  numerous  gradations,  from  lavender  and  lilac 
to  French  gray. 

All  colors  in  distemper  are  lighter  when  dry  than  they 
appear  in  a  wet  condition. 

White  is  the  basis  of  all  tints,  and  is  necessary  in  com- 
pounding the  endless  variety  of  pale  colors  required  by 
the  painter  and  decorator.  Thus,  white  tinted  with  blue 
affords  Paris  white,  French  grays,  silver  gi'ays,  while  among 
the  red  tints  we  have  pink,  carnation,  coquilicot,  and  yellow 
with  white  gives  primrose,  straw-color  and  Isabella.  To  the 
colors  compounded  more  or  less  with  white  we  owe  the 
innumerable  tints  of  lilac,  lavender,  peach  blossom,  pea 
green  and  sage  green,  as  shown  in  the  preceding  list  of  tints. 

The  painter  is  advised  to  mix  the  tints  in  different  hues, 
giving  in  each  experiment  a  predominance  to  one  or  other 
of  the  component  colors. 


PAPERHANGERS'  TOOLS. 

A  number  of  the  tools  used  bj'  a  paperhanger  are  shown 
in  the  following  illustrations. 

Two  styles  of  shears  used  by  a  paperhanger  are  shown 
in  Fig.  38. 

Paperhanger 's  paste  brushes  are  shown  in  Figs.  39  and  40. 

A  paperhanger 's  smoothing  brush  is  shown  in  Fig.  41 
and  a  combined  smoothing  brush  and  roller  in  Fig.  42. 

The  felt  smoothing  rollers  as  shown  in  Fig.  43  are  made 
of  a  number  of  specially  prepared  felt  coils  2^/2  inches  in 


Fig.   38.     Paperhanger's  Shears. 


diameter,  which  can  be  tightened  or  loosed  at  will.  The 
rollers  are  seamless  and  very  resilient.  They  can  be  used 
equally  as  well  on  rough  as  on  smooth  walls;  they  do  not 
need  re-covering  and  can  be  easily  cleaned.  They  can  be 
used  for  stippling  paint  or  paper,  or  stenciling  in  oil  or 
water  colors. 

The  smoothing  roller  shown   in   Fig.  44  is  made   with  a 
foundation  of  six-ply  Canton  flannel  and  a  detachable  cam- 

266 


PAPERHANGERS^  TOOLS 


267 


brie  cover,  held  in  place  by  removable  ferrules,  so  that  it 
may  be  easily  replaced. 

The    wall    paper    tiimmer    shown    in    Fig.    45    has    roller 


Fig.   39.      Paperhanger's  Paste  Brush. 

bearings.      This   reduces   the   friction   of   the   trimmer   to   a 
minimum,  enabling-  the  operator  to  manipulate  it  back  and 


Fig.  40.     Paperhanger's  Paste  Brush. 


forth  on  the  edge  of  the  straight  edge  with  scarcely  any 
effort. 

The  graduating  plumb  and  level  shown  in  Fig.  46  is  made 


268 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  PAINTING 


of  highly  polished  brass  and  will  fit  any  trimmer  straight  edge 
■without  the  manipulation  of  screws  by  means  of  the  spring 
shown  in  the  drawing.  Any  graduation  for  panel  or  relief 
work  is  obtained  instantly  by  moving  the  pointer,  which  re- 


Fig.  41.     Paperhanger's  Smoothing  Brush. 

mains  rigidly  at  degree  of  angle  desired.  By  moving  the 
pointer  to  90  degrees,  it  can  be  ascertained  how  much 
the  ceiling  is  out  of  level. 

The  paper  trimmer  shown  in  Fig.  47  has  reversible  cut 
and  automatic  shifting  relief  for  the  cutters.     It  has  feed 


Fig.   42.     Combined  Smoothing   Brush   and   Roller. 


guides  on  both  sides  of  the  paper  and  trims  18-inch  length 
at  each  turn  of  the  crank.  The  rollers  in  this  machine  are 
of  hollow  composite  construction,  and  will  not  warp  by 
reason  of  change  of  climate  or  temperature. 


PAPEKIIANGERS'  TOOLS 


269 


The    paperhanger's    pasting    table,    sliown    in    Fig.    48,    is 
made  from  the  best  selected  and  seasoned  basswood.     The 


Fig.    43.      Smoothing   Roller. 


Fig.    44.     Smoothing   Roller. 

top  is  mode   of  four  pieces,   tongned,   grooved   and   glued. 
The   legs   are   riveted   in   galvanized   ii'on   boxes.     The   top 


270 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 


folds,  enclosing  the  legs,  and  has  a  space  inside  for  straight 
edge  and  tools. 


Fig.   45.       Vail   Paper   Trimmer. 

Paperhangers '  knives  are  shown  in  Fi<j-.  49:    A— Polished 
blade,    maple    handle,    natural    wood,    closed    ferrule.      B— 


°<S  LEVEL 
Fig.  46.     Graduating  Plumb  and  Level. 


Blade   tempered  and  polished,  maple  handle,   shellac  finish, 
closed  ferrule.    C— Tempered  and  polished  steel  blade,  staia 


PAPERHANGERS '  TOOLS 


271 


finish  maple  handle,  closed  ferrule.  D — Blade  tempered 
and  polished  steel  blade,  beech  wood  handle,  natural  finish, 
open  ferrule. 

Paperhangers '  seam  rollers  are  shown  in  Figs.  50,  51  and 
52:  A — Polished  oval  maple  roller.  B — Rubber-covered 
roller.   C — Polished  maple  roller^  oval  or  flat  face.    D — Rub- 


Fig.  47.     Wall  Paper  Trimmer. 


ber-covered  roller.  E — Oval  rosewood  or  lignum  vitae 
roller.  F — Flat  rosewood  or  lignum  vitae  roller.  G' — Side 
ai-m  roller,  flat  or  bevel  face.  H — Corrugated  rubber  face, 
hardwood  core.  J — Side  arm  roller,  celluloid  covered.  K — 
Double  arm  roller,  celluloid  covered,  oval  face.  L — Double 
arm  roller,  celluloid  covered,  flat  face.  M — Solid  zylonite 
ivory  seam  roller,  for  feather  edge  work. 


272 


CYCLOPEDIA  OP  PAINTING 


Paperhangers*  wheel  knives  are  shown  in  Figs.  53  and  54: 
A — Short    bevel,    steel    bracket,    plain    or    saw-tooth    blade. 


Fig.  48.     Paperhanger's  Table. 


B — Short    bevel,    malleable    iron    handle,    serrated,    plain    or 
saw-tooth  blade.     C — Double  arm,  steel  bracket,  saw-tooth, 


PAPERHANCJERS'  TOOLS 


273 


B 


G 


274 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 


B 


D 


Fig.  DO.     Paperhanger's  Seam  Rollers. 


P.YPERHANGERS     TOOLS 


275 


H 


Fig.  51.     Paperbanger'5  Seam  Rollers. 


276 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    PAINTING 


& 


M 


Fig.  52.     Paperhanger's  Seam  Rollers. 


PAPERHANGERS '  TOOLS 


277 


.«!!,!!►•». 


ll;R 


•«■',- 


B 


^^mm^ 


Fig.   53.     Paperbanger's  Wheel  Knives. 


278 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    PAINTING 


E 


G 


Fig.    54.     Paperijanger's   Wheel   KnlveB. 


II 


PAPERHANGERS '  TOOLS 


279 


serrated    or    plain    blade.      D — Bevelled    both    sides,    steel 
bracket,  serrated  blade,     E — Short  bevel,  double  arm  brack- 


Fig.    55.     Paperhanger's  Wheel   Knife. 

et,  plain  blade.     F — Short  bevel,  washers  both  sides,  steel 
bracket,  plain  blade.    G — Short  bevel,  malleable  iron  handle, 


Fig.    56.      Paperhanger's    Wheel   Knife. 

paste  cleaner  attachment.     H — Short  bevel,  polished  handle, 
paste  cleaner  attachment. 


Fig.    57.      Paperhanger's    Wheel    Knife. 

The  wheel  knife  shown  in  Fig.  55  has  a  bevel  on  both 
sides  and  blade  made  with  an  arbor  revolving  in  the  socket, 
paste  cleaner "attiachment  and  rosewood  handle. 


280 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 


Fig.  56  shows  a  wheel  knife  with  steel  blade  ground  with- 
out a  bevel.  It  makes  a  clean  cut  without  crushing  the 
edge  of  the  paper.     The  handle  is  said  to  fit  the  hand  per- 


Fig.    58.     Paperhanger's  Wheel   Knife. 

fectly.  Fig.  57  shows  the  position  of  the  wheel  knife  in 
the  hand  when  in  use.  The  wheel  knife  shown  in  Fig.  58 
has   a   short   bevel,   off-set   steel   bracket   and   maple   handle. 


Kig.    5"J.     Combination    Casing   and   Corner  Knife. 

It  may  be  used  on  any  depth  straight  edge,  as  it  works  on  a 
long  axle. 

Fig.    59    shows    a    combination    casing   and    corner   knife. 
It   has   a   cutter   witli    a   short   bevel,   serrated   edge.     It   is 


Fig.  60.     Wl^eel  Knife  witli  Paste  Cleaner. 

especially  adapted  for  ceiling  work.     The  knife  has  a  fluted 
edge,  so  that  it  \yill   nut   tear  tlie  iiai)er. 

The    wheel    knife    shown    in    Fig.    GO    has    a    short    bevel, 
malleable  iron  handle  and  paste  cleaner  attachment. 


PAINTERS'  TOOLS. 

Painters '  scrapers  are  shown  in  Fig,  61 :  A — Clipped 
point,  metal  bolster,  coeabola  wood  handle,  B — Square 
point,  metal  bolster,  coeabola  handle.  C — Clipped  point, 
steel  ferrule,  half  elastic.  D — Square  point,  flat  coeabola 
handle,  two  rivets,  half  elastic. 

Painters'  putty  knives  are  shown  in  Fig.  62:  A — Beech- 
wood  handle,  open  ferrule.  B — Burnt  wood  handle,  open 
ferrule.  C — Burnt  wood  handle,  closed  ferrule.  D — Flat 
beech  wood  handle. 


Fig.    64.      Paint   Brush   Holder. 

Painters'  steel  wire  brushes  are  illustrated  in  Fig.  63: 
A — For  removing  paint,  rust  and  all  foreign  accumulations 
from  the  surface  of  plain  and  ornamental  metals,  stone  and 
brick.  B — Painter's  wire  duster,  made  of  very  fine  steel 
wire.  C — Used  to  apply  preparations  for  removing  old 
paint,  D — For  removing  old  paint  and  cleaning  moldings. 
E — For  cleaning  cornices  and  out-of-the-way  places. 

A  painter's  brush  holder  is  shown  in  Fig.  64.  This  is  in- 
dispensable for  keeping'  the  brushes  in  good  condition. 

281 


282 


CYCLOPEDIA  OF  PAINTING 


B 


Fig.    01.     Painter's   Scrapers. 


painters'  tools 


283 


D 


Fig.   62.     Painter's  Putty  Knives. 


284 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 


A 


rfrtr  Hendee  WireBrustlCr 

liiiii'iiil 


D 


E 


Fig.   G3.     Painter's  Steel  Wire  Brushes. 


PAPER    HANGING. 

When  re-papering  an  old  wall  the  first  thing  to  be  done  is 
to  remove  the  old  paper.  Now  although  this  is  very  neces- 
sary in  order  to  produce  a  good  job,  as  well  as  for  sanitary 
reasons,  it  is  very  frequently  neglected  altogether,  and  one 
paper  is  pasted  over  another  time  after  time,  the  accumu- 
lation of  dirt,  decayed  paste,  and  perhaps  various  insects 
forming  a  most  unsanitary  dwelling  place.  The  paper  may 
be  usually  removed  by  washing  it  over  with  hot  water,  giv- 
ing a  liberal  quantity,  and  allow  this  to  soak  in,  and  then 
scraping  off  with  an  old  chisel  or  scraper. 

If  the  paper  is  varnished,  or  is  printed  in  oil,  that  is,  if 
it  is  of  the  quality  known  as  sanitary  paper,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  scoi-e  over  the  surface  with  a  chisel  before 
applying  the  water,  so  as  to  give  an  opportunity  for  the 
moisture  to  soak  in.  Commence  at  the  top,  taking  care  not 
to  injure  the  cornice  or  ceiling,  and  to  get  every  particle 
of  the  paper  away.  Sometimes  plastered  walls  which  have 
been  papered  with  half  a  dozen  or  more  papers  are  in  such 
a  bad  condition  that  when  these  papers  are  removed  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  plaster  will  be  pulled  away.  In 
such  a  ease  it  may  be  quite  necessary  to  leave  the  old  paper 
on.  In  a  fairly  good  wall  the  paper  may  be  removed  with- 
out injury,  provided  that  plenty  of  water  is  used,  it  is  very 
probable  that  there  will  be  some  breaks,  which  will  require 
mending  before  the  new  paper  is  applied.  This  can  be  done 
without  much  difficulty  by  means  of  plaster  of  Paris  mixed 
in  small  quantities  at  the  time  with  a  little  glue  water,  and 
applied  with  a  knife  or  piece  of  wood,  and  smoothed  off 
to  a  level  surface.  In  mending  the  walls  of  an  ordinary 
room  in  this  way  it  may  be  necessary  to  mix  the  plaster 
half  a  dozen  times,  as  if  sufficient  is  mixed  at  one  time  for 

285 


286  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

the  whole  job  it  will  be  found  to  be  set  quite  hai'd,  and 
therefore  to  be  useless  before  the  mending  is  completed.  A 
few  drops  of  glj-cerine  added  to  the  plaster  will  retard  its 
setting,  but  this  is  not  necessary  if  glue  water  is  used.  It  is 
best  not  to  pajjer  over  a  patched  wall  for  several  days,  but 
if  time  presses  a  coat  of  knotting  may  be  given  over  all 
the  jjatches  to  prevent  the  plaster  affecting  the  color  of  the 
newlj'-aioplied  paper.  Coarse  sandpaper  should  now  be 
rubbed  over  the  whole  surface,  so  as  to  make  it  as  level  as 
possible,  and  then  the  room  is  ready  for  papering. 

Choosing  the  Paper.  This  choice  is  usually  left  to  the 
lad^'  of  the  house,  probably  on  the  supposition  that  she  has 
better  taste  in  such  matters  than  her  husband.  If  the 
paper  is  of  a  cheap  grade  in  most  cases  the  wallpaper  dealer 
will  send  a  book  of  jDatterns  measuring,  perhaps,  24  by  18 
inches,  and  from  these  small  samples  the  occupant  of  the 
house  is  expected  to  make  a  selection.  It  is  this  which 
gives  rise  to  so  much  disapiDointment.  A  small  piece  con- 
veys a  verj'  little  idea  of  the  appearance  the  room  will  pre- 
sent when  the  walls  are  covered  all  over  with  the  same 
pattern,  and  it  is  far  better,  where  it  is  practicable,  espe- 
cially in  the  principal  rooms,  to  obtain  a  roll  or  two  of 
those  papers  which  appear  to  be  most  suitable,  and  to  pin 
them  on  the  wall,  so  as  to  gain  a  good  idea  of  the  appear- 
ance they  will  present.  The  following  hints  should  be  borne 
in  mind.  For  a  small  room  choose  a  small  pattern  paper, 
never  a  large  one,  which  will  make  it  look  smaller  still.  A 
room  with  a  low  ceiling  will  look  higher  than  it  is  if  a 
pattern  having  vertical  stripes  is  chosen.  The  reverse  of 
this  is  true  of  an  unusually  high  room,  which  will  not 
look  so  high  if  a  paper  having  horizontal  stripes  is  used. 
Gold  papers,  or  those  which  have  bronze  or  imitation  gold 
in  the  design,  are  now  rarely  used,  being  rightly  considered 
as  somewhat  vulgar,  excepting  in  public  or  important  rooms. 
Large  pronounced  patterns  are  usually  not  desirable,  be- 
cause they  detract  from  the  repose  or  quiet  appearance  a 


PAPER   HANGING  287 

living  room  should  present.  A  bedroom  should  always  be 
papered  with  a  cheerful  design,  and  geometrical  figures 
be  avoided  as  far  as  possible. 

In  choosing  a  paper  for  a  hall  or  staircase,  or  any  room 
or   apartment    which    is    somewhat    bare   in    appearance    or 
devoid  of  furniture,  it  is  always  well  to  select  a  hanging 
of   bold    design   and    somewhat   vivid    coloring.      Conversely 
a  room  full  of  furniture,  especially  if  small  and  with  many 
pictures   on   the  walls,   would   be   wholly   spoilt  by   a   bold 
design.     During  the  last  few  years  there  has  been  a  distinct 
tendency  toward  employing  papers  with  little  or  no  pattern 
at  all,  ingrains  are  much  in  vogue.     These  papers  are  dj^ed 
in  the  process  of  manufacturing  instead  of  being  grounded 
or   treated   with   the   distemper   color   on   the  surface,   as   is 
usual   with    ordinary   wall    papers.       An   excellent    effect   is 
produced  in   decorating  a   room  with  such  a  plain  ingrain, 
especially  if  a  good  bold  frieze  is  employed  to  form  a  finish, 
and  take  away  from  the  bare  effect.     The  objections  to  in- 
grains,  however,  is    that   they   are   very  apt   to   lose   their 
color,  and  also  that  they  are  very  difficult  to  hang,  as  they 
are  almost  like  blotting  paper  in  texture,  and  they  rapidly 
absorb   the   moisture   from   the   paste.     For  many  purposes 
an  ingTaiu  paper  or  its  equivalent,  having  printed  upon  it 
a  very  small  set  design,  produces  good  results.    In  selecting 
papers  it  should  be  remembered  that  it  is  not  necessary  to 
pay  a  high  price  in  order  to  get  good  designs. 

Having  made  a  selection  of  the  paper,  the  next  thing  to 
be  done  is  to  cut  off  one  or  more  of  the  margins.  This  is 
readily  done  by  means  of  scissors  or  a  trimmer.  In  some 
wall-paper  shops  will  be  found  a  machine  by  which  the 
selvedge  or  margins  may  be  rapidly  removed,  and  in  some 
cases  the  paper  may  be  purchased  already  trimmed,  which, 
of  course,  saves  a  good  deal  of  trouble.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered, however,  that  the  wall-paper  manufacturer  left  the 
selvedge  on  for  a  definite  purpose,  to  protect  the  body  of 
the  paper,  and  that  without  it  there  is  a  likelihood  of  the 


288  CYCLOPEDIA   OF  PAINTING 

paper  becoming  quickly  soiled.  It  should  be  remembered, 
therefore,  that  when  wall  paper  is  bought  ready  trimmed  it 
is  necessary  to  take  great  care  in  handling,  so  as  not  to 
dirty  or  mar  the  edges.  There  are  two  ways  of  hanging 
paper,  one  with  what  is  called  a  butt  edge,  the  other  a 
lapped  edge.  In  the  former  both  margins  are  cut  off,  and 
the  edges  of  the  paper  must  then  be  drawn  together,  so  as 
to  exactly  meet,  the  pattern,  of  course,  uniting  accurately. 
The  difficulty  of  the  paperhanger  using  the  butt  edge  is  that 
he  sometimes  finds  a  difficulty  in  bringing  the  edges  to 
meet,  and  if  there  is  a  space  between,  the  white  wall  under- 
neath shows  through.  Sometimes  the  paper  shrinks  after 
being  hung,  and  produces  the  same  objectionable  effect.  To 
prevent  this  it  is  not  a  bad  plan  to  mix  a  little  distemper 
to  match  the  ground  of  the  paper,  and  to  paint  this  down 
the  wall  exactly  where  the  several  seams  will  come.  If  in 
this  case  there  is  an  opening  of,  say,  a  thirty-second  part 
of  an  inch  it  will  not  be  noticed.  As  a  rule,  the  unskilled 
workman  will  prefer  to  use  a  lapped  edge.  In  this  case 
only  one  margin  is  cut  off,  and  the  paper  is  lapped  or  placed 
over  the  other,  care  being  taken  to  match  the  pattern  as 
before.  The  objection  to  lapping  is  that  the  joints  show 
somewhat  conspicuously,  as  it  will  be  clear  that  there  will 
be  two  thicknesses  of  paper  instead  of  one  wherever  the 
joins  occur.  A  hint  of  importance  is  to  remember  that  the 
laps  should  be  away  from  the  light,  as  this  will  render  them 
less  conspicuous  than  it  would  otherwise  be. 

Paperhanger 's  Paste.  There  are  several  ways  of  making 
paperhanger 's  paste,  but  they  all  practically  come  to  the 
same  thing  in  the  end.  Take  a  sufficient  quantity  of  ordi- 
nary white  flour,  place  it  in  a  big  basin,  add  a  littie  water, 
stir  and  beat  it  up  to  a  stiff  batter,  and  then  Ihin  with 
additional  water,  taking  care  there  are  no  lumps.  Care 
must  also  be  taken  not  to  add  too  much  cold  water,  so  as 
to  make  the  mixture  too  thin.  When  satisfied  that  there 
are  no  lumps,  pour  in  slowly  boiling  water,  stirring  vigor- 


PAPER    HANGING  289 

ously  meanwhile  only  in  one  direction.  In  a  short  time  the 
paste  will  begin  to  thicken,  which  means  that  it  is  cooked, 
and  is  then  about  right  for  use.  In  order  to  stiffen  the 
paste,  and  also  to  prevent  it  becoming  rancid,  alum  is  some- 
times added  in  the  proportion  of  about  a  teaspoonful  of 
ground  alum  to  two  quarts  of  paste,  this,  however,  must 
never  be  added  if  the  paper  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied  is 
ingrain,  as  it  is  likely  to  cause  the  color  to  fade.  It  must 
also  never  be  used  on  gold  papers,  as  it  turns  the  so-called 
gold  black.  To  jjreserve  the  paste  a  few  drops  of  oil  of 
cloves  should  be  added,  or  a  little  carbolic  acid.  An  excel- 
lent preservative  is  formaldehyde,  which  may  be  added 
in  the  proportion  of  about  a  teaspoonful  to  four  quarts. 
The  paste  should  not  be  used  while  hot,  it  is  better  if  it 
stands  for  a  little  time.  To  prevent  a  skin  forming  on  the 
top  a  little  cold  water  may  be  added.  If  the  paper  is  a 
very  stiff  one,  a  small  proportion  of  glue  melted  in  water 
may  be  added,  but  this  is  not,  as  a  rule,  necessary. 

Measuring  Quantity  of  Paper  Required.  It  will  now  be 
necessary  to  ascertain  the  number  of  pieces  of  paper  re- 
quired for  the  room  that  is  to  be  re-papered.  Paperhangers 
can,  as  a  rule,  tell  the  number  of  pieces  by  glancing  at  a 
room,  but  the  amateur  will  require  to  measure.  A  piece 
of  wallpaper  is  eight  yards  long,  and  when  trimmed  21 
inches  wide,  there  is,  however,  more  or  less  waste,  and  the 
larger  the  pattern  the  greater  will  the  waste  be.  In  prac- 
tice the  simplest  plan  to  follow  is  to  take  a  roll  of  paper  or 
a  piece  of  stick  out  to  the  right  length,  and  to  measure 
around  the  room,  and  find  out  how  many  lengths  will  be 
required,  then  measure  the  height,  and  see  how  many 
lengths  can  be  obtained  from  the  eight  yards  in  length, 
remembering  that  something  must  be  cut  to  waste,  so  as  to 
match  the  paper.  The  pieces  left  over  will  usually  be  suf- 
ficient to  paper  over  doors,  windows,  and  any  odd  places. 
The  following  table  may  be  useful  for  reference,  but  it  can- 
not always  be  relied  upon,  because  it  is  clear  that  one  room 


290 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 


may  have  many  more  windows  or  openings  in  it  than  an- 
other. 


^\ 

ALL 

Paper 

Table. 

Showing  the  Num 

3er 

of  P 

ieces 

of  Wiillpaper, 

21  Inches  \^ 

^ide. 

Measure 

round 

the 

Four  Walls 

in  feet, 

including  Doors,  | 

Windows,  etc. 

Height  ir 

Feet 

Lengths    of    Fo 

iR    Wall 

■;    IN-     Fkkt. 

from   Skirting  to 
Cornice. 

24  26.3  29.3  32 

34.3 

37.3  40  42.3  45.3  48 

50.3 

7  and  under  7^ 

5 

5 

6 

6 

7 

7 

8 

8 

8      9 

9 

7X     " 

8 

5 

5 

6 

6 

7 

8 

8 

9 

9     10 

10 

8         " 

8X 

5 

6 

6 

7 

7 

8 

8 

9 

9     10 

10 

8X     " 

9 

5 

6 

7 

7 

8 

8 

9 

10 

10     11 

11 

9         " 

9%    6 

6 

7 

7 

8 

9 

9 

10 

10     11 

12 

9X     " 

10 

6 

7 

7 

8 

9 

9 

10 

10 

11     12 

12 

10       " 

10% 

6 

7 

8 

8 

9 

10 

10 

11 

12     12 

13 

lOX  " 

11 

7 

7 

8 

9 

9 

10 

11 

11 

12     13 

13 

11       " 

11)4 

7 

8 

8 

9 

10 

10 

11 

12 

13     13 

14 

Hanging  the  Paper.  It  is  suiDposed  the  paper  is  trimmed 
and  cut  into  lengths  ready  to  hang.  The  lengths  are  rather 
longer  than  is  actually  required,  and  the  paperhanger  will 
find  that  at  this  point  he  reaches  his  greatest  difficulty, 
which  is  to  paste  the  paper  and  carry  it  while  wet  to  the 
wall  and  hang  it  in  a  vertical  position.  A  good  plan  for  a 
beginner  is  to  take  a  plumb-bob,  or  if  one  is  not  available  a 
small  weight  tied  to  a  piece  of  string  answers  for  the  jDur- 
pose,  and  mark  out  upon  the  wall  vertical  lines  at  the  points 
where  the  joins  of  the  paper  are  to  come.  This  will  at 
least  have  the  effect  of  keeping  the  joins  upright.  Place 
the  paper  face  downwards  on  a  pasting  board,  and  give  it 
a  coat  of  paste,  taking  care  not  to  apply  too  much,  or  it 
will  brush  out  when  the  paper  is  applied.  If  the  table  is 
not  long  enough  to  take  the  whole  length,  as  it  probably 
will  not  be,  paste  one  half,  fold  the  end  toward  the  center, 


PAPER    HANGING  291 

then  carefully  draw  the  strip  over  and  paste  the  other  end, 
folding  again  so  as  to  meet  the  end  already  folded.  In 
this  condition  the  paper  will  not  leave  any  of  the  pasted 
surface  outward,  and  as  there  are  at  least  two  thicknesses, 
it  will  not  be  very  difficult  to  lift  it  from  the  table.  With 
a  little  care  the  lower  portion  of  the  paper  may  be  folded 
again  for  convenience  in  carrying.  Commence  at  a  project- 
ing corner  of  a.  door  or  window,  or  at  any  other  position 
where  a  mis-match  will  show  the  least.  Climb  the  step 
ladder,  Avliich  must,  of  course,  be  provided,  unfold  the 
upi3er  end  of  the  paper,  place  it  carefully  beneath  the 
cornice  and  down  the  marked  line,  press  it  against  the  wall 
with  a  brush,  taking  care  that  there  are  no  air  bubbles  left. 
Then  unfold  another  portion,  and  press  this  down  also,  and 
proceed  in  the  same  way  until  the  bottom  of  the  length  is 
reached,  when  it  will  be  found  that  a  portion  of  the  length 
which  was  cut  too  long  projects  over  the  skirting  board. 
Draw  the  point  of  the  scissors  lightly  along  this  edge,  which 
will  mark  the  paper,  pull  the  lower  end  of  the  strip  away 
from  the  wall,  and  cut  otr  this  superfluous  portion  of  the 
paper,  and  press  the  whole  back  in  position;  one  length  of 
paper  will  thus  have  been  hung.  Before  pasting  the  second 
length,  see  that  you  have  it  cut  correctly  at  the  top  to 
watch  when  placing  it  in  230sition.  Paperhangers  frequent- 
ly manage  this  on  the  wall  itself,  using  the  lower  member 
of  the  cornice  as  a  guide  to  mark  the  upper  edge  of  the 
length,  and  they  cut  this  suiierfluous  top  edge  while  stand- 
ing on  the  ladder.  The  paperhanger  will  do  much  better 
to  get  the  upper  portion  right  before  he  pastes  the  paper. 
A  paperhanger 's  brush  should  be  used  to  press  the  paper 
to  the  wall.  These  brushes  are  usually  used  where  speed 
is  required;  thej^  require  a  little  practice  before  one  becomes 
expert  with  them.  Where  a  border  or  frieze  is  to  be  hung, 
the  loroceeding  is  precisely  similar  to  that  already  described, 
except  that  the  width  of  the  jiaper  is  much  less,  and  it  is, 
of  course,  hung  horizontally  instead  of  vertically.     If  the 


292  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

paperhanger  will  take  care  to  fold  his  paper  several  times 
after  it  has  been  pasted,  he  should  find  no  difficulty  in 
handling  it.  It  must  be  folded  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be 
unfolded  piece  by  jjiece  as  required  to  go  up  in  its  proper 
position. 

Borders  and  Friezes.  Sometimes  in  the  country,  and 
even  in  well-built  houses,  rooms  are  found  finished  entirely 
without  cornices.  In  such  cases  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
produce  a  finished  effect  unless  a  border  or  frieze  is  used. 
The  boi'ders  should  be  almost  always  used  in  rooms  large 
and  small,  with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  the  servants' 
bedrooms.  They  cost  very  little,  and  if  a  comparison  is 
made  between  a  room  finished  without  a  frieze  and  another 
in  which  a  good  design  is  employed,  the  difference  will  be  at 
once   apparent. 

Now  that  plain  papers  are  so  much  in  vogue,  the  frieze 
becomes  an  important  part  of  the  design,  and  drawing  and 
dining-rooms  from  which  a  frieze  is  omitted  is  usually 
considered   spoiled. 

Hanging  Ceiling  Papers.  Papered  ceilings  are  used  at 
present  to  a  very  much  greater  extent  than  they  were  for- 
merly; in  fact,  in  the  better  class  of  houses  they  are  now 
used  almost  invariably.  A  papered  ceiling  with  a  papered 
wall  gives  an  appearance  of  finish  and  completeness  which 
is  not  apparent  when  the  walls  are  papered  and  the  ceiling 
is  distempered.  Distempered  walls  and  distempered  ceil- 
ings give  the  best  possible  appearance  in  interior  decora- 
tion, but  papered  walls  must  always  be  used  to  a  very  con- 
siderable extent,  and  then  the  apartment  is  not  finished 
unless  paper  is  used  on  tlie  ceiling  also.  Those  who  crave 
for  white  ceilings  can  get  them  in  paper,  or,  rather,  they 
can  purchase  many  designs  at  very  moderate  prices  in 
which  the  pattern  is  so  delicate  and  faintly  defined  that 
it  can  only  be  discerned  in  certain  lights.  For  a  drawing- 
room  a  very  pretty  paper  is  one  having  a  cream  or  nearly 
white  ground,  with  a  pattern  printed  in  talc  or  some  bril- 


PAPER   HANGING  293 

liant  material  which,  while  nearly  colorless,  shows  up  very 
prettily  under  the  gas  light.  Excepting  the  very  elaborate 
schemes  of  decoration,  bright  colored  ceiling  papers  should 
never  be  used.  Floral  designs  are  out  of  the  question  for 
ceilings,  somewhat  large  geometrical  designs,  sometimes  in 
imitation  of  ribbed  effects,  being  usually  employed.  To 
hang  a  paper  on  a  ceiling  requires  a  good  deal  of  thought 
and  planning,  and  it  is  by  no  means  as  easy  as  hanging 
the  paper  on  the  wall.  The  paper  having  been  carefully 
schemed  out  so  as  to  show  to  the  best  advantage,  is 
pasted  and  folded  as  before,  and  hung  in  the  same  man- 
ner, excepting  that  a  lath  or  stick  must  be  used  as  an  aid 
in  holding  up  the  folded  portion,  while  the  other  end  is 
being  pressed  to  the  surface.  Before  the  paper  hanging  of 
the  ceiling  is  commenced,  all  breaks  and  cracks  should  be 
mended  in  the  same  manner  as  already  described  in  dealing 
with  broken  walls.  When  cutting  the  paper  around  regular 
angles,  such  as  those  which  arise  from  a  bay  window,  the 
best  plan  is  to  cut  the  paper  roughly  to  about  the  angle 
required,  leaving  it  rather  longer  than  necessary,  and  then 
to  mark  the  exact  line  against  the  cornice  with  the  point 
of  the  scissors,  then  to  cut  off  the  superfluous  end.  Even 
where  care  is  taken,  this  will  sometimes  cause  a  little 
trouble  with  the  paste  coming  against  the  cornice,  but  this 
can  afterwards  be  made  good  with  whitening  or  coloring  the 
cornice  as  already  mentioned. 

In  rooms  which  have  no  pretensions  whatever  to  a  deco- 
rative appearance,  ceilings  are  often  papered  in  order  to 
strengthen.  We  have  seen  old  ceilings  which  appeared  to  be 
about  to  fall  off,  kept  in  position  for  years  by  two  coats 
of  strong  paper  pasted  over  them.  In  this  case  what  is 
known  as  lining  paper  is  used.  It  is  sold  by  every  dealer 
in  paper  hangings,  and  is  cheap.  It  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  a  ceiling  must  never  be  papered  in  any  room  in  which 
there  is  steam  at  any  time.  For  instance,  in  a  laundry  it  is 
entirely  out  of  place,  as  the   first  washing  day  will  mean 


294  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

the  descent  upon  one's  head  of  all  the  paper  from  the  ceil- 
ing. 

Cleaning  Wallpaper.  The  tenant  or  house  owner  at  those 
unpleasant  periods  in  the  j'ear  when  spring  cleaning  ap- 
pears to  be  inseparable  from  a  quiet  existence,  or  when 
()arts  of  the  house  are  re-decorated  owing  to  a  sudden  fit  of 
generosity  on  the  part  of  the  landlord,  often  experiences 
a  good  deal  of  difficult}'  in  determining  whether  a  room 
really  requires'  re-papering  or  not.  Possibly  the  paper  is 
fairly  expensive,  and  is  only  soiled  over  a  small  portion  of 
its  surface.  All  ordinary  papers  maj^  be  cleaned  without 
difficulty.  There  are  on  the  market  various  preparations 
for  the  purpose  which  do  the  work  very  effectually,  but 
their  use  is  not  necessar}'.  One  of  the  simplest  waj's  is  to 
take  a  loaf  of  ordinarj'  rj'e  bread,  which  is  at  least  two 
days  old,  cut  off  the  crust,  and  trim  the  crust  also  from 
around  the  edge,  place  on  the  floor  sheets  of  newspaj^er  or 
cloths  to  catch  the  crumbs,  and  then  go  over  the  whole  sur- 
face of  the  paper,  rubbing  it  with  the  loaf  from  top  to  bot- 
tom in  regular  strokes.  When  the  end  of  the  loaf  becomes 
dirty  cut  off  a  very  thin  slice  with  a  shai'p  knife,  trim  back 
the  edge  again,  and  proceed  as  before.  Even  better  than  the 
loaf  is  baker's  dough,  or  flour  and  water  mixed  to  a  stiff 
dough  answers  equally  well.  A  good  plan  is  to  add  about 
quarter  of  the  bulk  of  plaster  of  Paris  to  the  floui',  as  this 
holds  the  dough  together,  and  renders  it  less  plastic  or  yield- 
ing under  the  strokes.  Still  another  way  is  to  use  bran,  a 
handful  is  taken  and  placed  in  a  piece  of  flannelj  and  then 
rubbed  against  the  surface  of  the  paper.  If  there  are  any 
grease  marks  on  the  paper  they  can  be  removed  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner:  Mix  a  little  dry  Fuller's  earth  into  a  paste, 
place  it  carefully  over  and  around  the  grease  spot,  when  quite 
dry  take  a  hot  flat  iron  and  hold  it  nearly  touching  the  layer 
of  Fuller's  earth.  This  will  dry  out  the  grease,  and  the 
Fuller's  earth  may  then  be  scraped  off,  leaving  the  paper 
comparatively  clean  and  fresh. 


PIGMENTS. 

Names  of  pigments  are  not  always  synonymous  with  the 
colors.  Dutch  pink  is  yellow,  verditer  is  blue,  lake  is  not 
purple-blue  always,  but  sometimes  green,  yellow,  brown,  etc, 
or  it  may  be  found  as  a  pigment  color,  with  a  chalk  base,  or 
body. 

Before  proceeding  to  describe  the  actual  method  of  mixing, 
a  few  general  remarks  on  colors  may  be  given.  White  lead 
is  used  for  the  base  of  paints,  because  that  pigment  possesses 
greater  covering  properties,  or  body,  as  it  is  technically 
termed,  than  any  other.  Zinc  whitfe  may  be  used  for  a  base 
under  certain  conditions,  and  color  mixed  with  it  will  not  be 
so  likely  to  fade  as  when  mixed  with  lead.  The  tendency  of 
zinc  white,  however,  to  chip  and  crack  renders  the  addition 
of  lead  necessary  in  some  cases.  When  practicable,  the  nat- 
i;ral  earth  pigment  should  be  used  for  tinting  purposes  in 
preference  to  those  which  are  manufactured.  Raw  umbers, 
raw  siennas,  etc.,  will  be  found  to  last  longer  than  burnt 
umbers  and  burnt  siennas.  As  a  rule,  burnt  umber  should 
not  be  used  for  outside  painting,  but  the  required  shade 
should  be  obtained  by  mixing  lamp  black  and  an  oxide  color, 
such  as  Venetian  red. 

Common  colors  include  lamp  black,  red  lead,  white  lead, 
Venetian  red,  umbers,  and  all  other  common  ochres,  such  as 
greys,  buffs,  stones,  etc.  Superior  or  ornamental  colors  in- 
clude bright  yellows,  warm  tints,  blues,  mineral  greens,  etc. 

In  compounding  pigments  for  painting,  there  is  yet  a 
further  matter  requiring  some  little  consideration  by  the 
painter.  All  blue  pigments  are  not  chemically  suitable  for 
mixture  with  yellows  or  reds,  nor  all  yellows  with  reds;  in 
fact,  a  knowledge  of  the  chemical  source  and  affinities  of 
pigments  is  almost  a  necessity  to  the  painter  and  decorator. 

295 


296  CYCLOPEDIA   OF  PAINTING 

As  the  most  brief  and  simple  "way  of  aiding  the  student,  it 
will  be  well  to  mention  those  ordinary  pigments  which  it  is 
usually  advisable  not  to  mix  together. 

For  mixing  with  oil  color  paints,  chrome  is  an  undesirable 
pigment,  and  it  is  particularly  to  be  avoided  when  compound- 
ing greens  from  Prussian  or  Antwerp  blues,  which  latter 
colors  it  would  eventually  destroy.  In  such  an  instance,  for 
common  use  the  best  substitute  for  the  chrome  would  be 
bright  yellow  ochre,  or,  as  it  is  often  called,  yellow  paint. 
Raw  sienna  can  also  be  used  with  the  above  blue  pigments 
without  much  detriment  to  either.  In  any  case  where  a 
bright  mixed  green  is  absolutely  necessary  the  lemon  chrome 
can  be  used  in  conjunction  with  good  ultramarine  blue  or 
indigo. 

In  compounding  the  secondary  color  of  purple  from  blues 
and  reds,  there  is  less  danger  of  trouble  arising.  The  best 
and  purest  is  obtained  by  mixing  ultramarine  with  madder 
lake,  which  is  a  beautiful  crimson  and  transparent  pennanent 
pigment,  while  lakes  derived  from  cochineal  are  unstable, 
ultramarine  and  vermilion  will  also  answer.  Prussian  blue 
and  vermilion  give  very  deep  purple,  which  may  be  lighted 
up  with  white.  For  common  purposes,  the  cheap  purple 
brown  is  most  useful,  if  required  full  in  strength,  but  if 
lighter  and  pure  tints  are  wanted  in  oil  or  distemper,  ultra- 
marine blue  and  vermilion,  or,  for  cheapness,  Venetian  red, 
is  necessary.  Prussian  blue  in  water  would  not  suit  so  well, 
but  indigo  could  be  used  if  cost  is  not  a  consideration. 

The  remaining  secondary,  orange,  is  not  a  color  very  much 
called  for.  Orange  chrome  or  orange  red  is  a  bright  opaque 
pigment,  but  otherwise  like  all  the  chromes,  not  a  com- 
mendable article.  Burnt  sienna  is  a  very  opposite  pigment 
in  both  nature  and  source.  It  is  semi-transparent,  reliable, 
and  permanent,  and  is,  when  of  good  quality,  a  remarkably 
strong  stainer,  like  Prussian  blue  in  this  respect.  In  com- 
pounding orange  color,  the  reds  and  ochres  already  men- 
tioned are  usually  bright  enough,  yellow  ochre  and  Venetian 


PIGMENTS  297 

red,  or  raw  and  burnt  sienna  together,  give  with  white  lead, 
a  good  and  serviceable  variety  of  permanent  orange  and 
salmon  tints. 

The  comiDounding  of  the  third  division  of  material  colors, 
the  tertiary,  from  either  of  the  two  secondaries,  is  a  sub- 
ject that  need  scarcely  here  be  dealt  with.  The  painter  who 
works  at  this  subject  will  soon  find  those  secondary  pig- 
ments of  orange  and  green  which  j^roduce  the  tertiary  citrine, 
whether  bright  or  sombre,  such  as  occasion  requires.  Of  the 
remaining  tertiaries,  russet  and  olive,  prepared  from  the 
secondaries  purple  and  orange,  purple  and  green,  respective- 
ly, there  is  a  good  supply  in  the  form  of  simple  pigments. 
Notwithstanding,  therefore,  the  necessity  and  advantage  of 
the  painter  being  able  to  obtain  any  color  by  the  admixture 
of  the  three  primaries,  it  is  always  most  desirable  to  use  a 
simi^le  article  of  the  desired  color  when  it  is  to  be  had. 

In  the  actual  mixing  of  paints,  it  must  not  be  thought 
that  there  is  any  one  way  that  is  exactly  right  while  all 
other  methods  are  exactly  wrong.  Every  painter  has  his 
own  peculiar  way.  In  nearly  all  cases,  the  simplest  plan  is  to 
use  pigments  ground  in  oil  instead  of  dry  powders.  With  a 
pallet  knife  break  up  the  lead  rather  stiff,  adding  a  little  oil. 
Thin  down  each  paint  until  it  is  rather  stiffer  than  the  whole 
will  be  when  ready  for  actual  application,  or  if  dry  pigments 
be  used,  add  a  little  oil,  and  thoroughly  mix.  The  lead,  zinc, 
or  other  base  being  ready,  add  some  pigment,  and  well  stir. 
If  several  pigments  are  required  to  produce  the  tint,  be  sure 
to  add  only  one  at  a  time,  and  take  great  care  that  each  is 
thoroughly  mixed  before  the  next  one  is  added.  As  a  further 
precaution,  it  is  well  not  to  add  the  pigment  all  at  once, 
but  to  do  so  a  little  at  a  time.  When  it  is  certain  that  a 
thorough  admixture  has  been  effected,  the  next  pigment  may 
be  added  a  little  at  a  time.  It  is  well  to  remember  that 
some  pigments,  such  as  Prussian  blue,  are  very  strong,  and 
the  addition  of  too  much  will  spoil  the  job.  It  is  easy  to  add 
a  little  more,  while  it  is  impossible  to  take  any  out.    A  little 


298  CYCLOPEDIA   OP   PAINTING 

precaution  in  this  respect  will  save  much  trouble,  and  al- 
though it  takes  longer  to  mix  the  paint,  it  is  the  much  safer 
plan.  Of  course,  a  practical  painter  who  is  used  to  mixing 
paints  can  add  the  necessary  amount  of  colors  without  taking 
these  precautions. 

Having  mixed  the  paint,  add  as  much  driers  as  may  be 
necessary,  taking  care  not  to  use  too  much.  Then  the  paint 
should  be  strained  through  a  fine  wire  strainer.  It  is  well  to 
mix  up  enough  of  the  paint  in  one  batch  to  do  the  whole  of 
the  job  in  hand,  so  that  there  may  be  no  trouble  or  waste  of 
time  in  matching  tints.  Paint  mixed  in  cold  weather  is  very 
likely  to  give  unsatisfactory  results,  because  the  oil  will 
stiffen  and  be  more  difficult  to  form  into  a  perfect  admixture. 
To  remedy  this,  a  gallon  or  so  of  the  oil  should  be  heated, 
and  this  poured  in  will  warm  up  the  paint,  and  prevent  it 
pulling  when  applied,  and  so  avoid  the  unnecessary  force  re- 
quired to  draw  the  brush  along. 

In  preparing  oil  paint,  the  first  question  to  be  considered 
is  the  nature  of  the  surface  to  be  painted,  whether  of  wood, 
stone,  or  metal,  and  to  Avhat  degree  it  is  absorbent;  second 
to  this  must  be  remembered  the  conditions  and  position  of 
the  work,  such  as  refer  to  expense,  durability,  and  drying 
qualities;  and  lasth',  to  bear  in  mind  the  all-important  mat- 
ter of  appearance  and  color,  whether  the  paint  is  for  the  first 
or  last  coat. 

The  quantities  of  driers,  oil,  and  turpentine  required  to 
bring  100  pounds  of  white  lead  to  the  consistency  of  paint 
is  a  matter  that  must  be  varied  according  to  the  conditions 
of  the  work  it  is  required  for.  In  summer-time,  1  pound  of 
good  driers  to  14  pounds  of  white  lead  is  ample  for  out-door 
purposes;  in  wintei'-time,  1  in  10  would  be  best.  The  quan- 
tity of  oils  required  would  be  about  IV2  gallons  for  100 
pounds  of  lead.  The  proportions  of  linseed  oil  and  oil  of 
turpentine  it  is  advisable  to  use  depends  entirely,  upon  the 
purpose  it  is  intended  for.  With  reference  to  the  question 
of  boiled  or  unboiled  oil,  it  should  be  remembered  that  both 


PIGMENTS  299 

oils  are  glossy  when  applied  in  sufficient  quantity,  boiled 
linseed  oil  has  more  body,  and  is  more  brilliant  than  raw 
linseed  oil,  raw  linseed  oil  is  lighter  in  color,  and  is  not  so 
liable  to  blister  as  boiled  linseed  oil,  boiled  linseed  oil  dries 
quicker  than  raw  linseed  oil. 

To  mix  1  pound  of  ordinary  oil  paint,  take  about  S  ounces 
of  pigment  the  desired  color.  White  lead  for  white,  light 
grays,  pinks,  cream,  etc.,  Venetian  red  or  vermilion  for  red, . 
and  so  on,  according  to  the  color  desired.  Add  to  this  about 
2  ounces  of  liquid  driers,  then  make  up  to  1  pound  with 
either  linseed  oil  alone  or  oil  and  turpentine  in  equal  parts. 
Remember,  tlie  more  oil,  the  more  driers  is  advisable,  but 
never  less  than  1  part  driers  in  8  or  10  of  entire  bulk.  If 
only  small  quantities  of  paint  are  wanted,  that  sold  ready 
mixed  would  be  cheapest  and  would  do  for  ordinary  inside 
work.  A  single  pound  could  not  be  made  cheaply,  and  some 
of  the  colors,  bright  red,  for  instance,  could  not  be  made 
at  twice  the  retail  price. 

The  ingredients  for  making  about  40  pounds  of  best  paint 
for  indoors,  tinted  to  a  French  gray  color,  would  be  28 
pounds  of  genuine  wdiite  lead,  3  pounds  of  patent  driers, 
about  1/2  gallon  of  raw  linseed  oil,  and  1  quart  of  turpen- 
tine. Mix  up  the  lead  and  driers  wdth  a  broad  stick  to  the 
consistency  of  a  thick  paste,  using  linseed  oil.  If  all  is  to  be 
tinted  one  color,  for  French  gray  add  a  little  ultramarine 
blue  and  either  a  little  Venetian  red  or  lamp  black.  If  a 
warm  gray  is  wanted,  add  the  red,  if  a  cool  metallic  tint, 
add  the  black.  The  ultramarine  can  only  be  bought  in 
powder;  mix  this  well  with  a  little  oil  before  adding  it  to  the 
paint,  the  other  colors  can  easily  be  obtained  ready  ground 
in  oil.  For  first  coating  on  new  jjlastei,  nearly  all  linseed 
oil  and  a  little  driers  may  be  used,  very  little  lead.  This 
will  stop  the  suction  of  the  plaster.  As  a  rule,  new  plaster 
requires  four  coats  to  get  a  good  surface. 

White  Lead.  The  pure  product  dissolves  completely  in 
dilute  nitric  acid,  as  well  as  in  potash  and  in  soda.  lye.   When 


300  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

exposed  to  the  sulphuretted  hydrogen  or  moistened  with  am- 
monium hydrosulphide  it  turns  brown  or  black,  whereby  it  is 
distinguished  from  zine-white.  When  heated  with  the  access 
of  air  it  yields  its  carbonic  acid,  and  at  572°  Fahrenheit 
passes  into  lead  oxide  and  finally  into  minium.  When  di- 
gested under  pressure  with  carbonated  water  for  some  time, 
the  water  may  contain  0.22  drachm  of  lead  per  quart.  The 
difference  in  covering  power  is  due  to  the  form,  size,  density 
and  composition  of  the  smallest  particles.  The  white  lead 
obtained  by  the  French  or  precipitation  process  is  looser, 
of  a  coarser  grain,  and  possesses  less  covering  power  than 
the  product  obtained  by  the  Dutch  or  German  process,  which 
is  denser,  of  a  finer  grain,  and  never  crystalline,  and,  though 
of  a  greater  specific  gravity,  requires  less  oil. 

When  exposed  to  the  light  and  air,  white  lead  is  fairly 
permanent  and  will  resist  exposure  to  normal  conditions 
for  a  great  length  of  time;  on  the  other  hand,  when  exposed 
to  the  fumes  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  other  sulphur- 
ous gases,  white  lead  turns  brown  or  black  through  the  for- 
mation of  the  black  sulphide  of  lead.  The  production  of 
this  body  is  more  likely  to  occur  in  large  towns,  where  great 
quantities  of  gas  are  used  for  lighting  and  other  purposes, 
which  usually  contains  some  sulphuretted  hydrogen  or  other 
sulphur  compounds. 

White  lead  can  be  mixed  with  all  pigments  except  those 
which,  like  cadmium  yellow,  ultramarine  or  King's  yellow, 
contain  sulphur,  such  pigments  sooner  or  later  causing  the 
formation  of  the  black  sulphide,  and  thus  bringing  about 
the  discoloration  of  the  pigment  or  paint. 

In  commerce  w-hite  lead  is  found  in  two  forms,  as  a  heavy 
white  powder,  having  a  specific  gravity  of  about  6.47  and 
weighing  about  180  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot,  or  as  a  paste 
containing  about  8  per  cent  of  tlie  linseed  oil.  To  make 
the  latter,  the  dry  white  lead  is  first  mixed  in  a  mixing  mill 
with  about  8  to  9  per  cent  of  its  weight  of  raw  linseed  oil; 
it  is  then  run  through  a  grinding  mill  several  times  to  en- 


PIGMENTS  301 

sure  a  thorough  mixture  of  the  oil  and  white  lead.  This 
form  is  much  liked  by  painters,  it  being  more  readily 
miseible  with  oil  and  turpentine  to  make  it  into  paint. 

In  order  to  obtain  a  cheaper  product,  white  lead  is  fre- 
quently mixed  with  barytes  which  is  distinguished  by  its 
white  color  and  great  specific  gravity.  The  mixture  is  often 
effected  in  fixed  proportions  and  for  certain  varieties  of 
white  lead,  which  are  known  by  special  names  or  numbers, 
remains  unchanged.  Thus  Venetian  white  consists  of  equal 
parts  white  lead  and  barytes,  Hamburg  white  of  2  parts 
barytes  and  1  part  white  lead,  Dutch  white  with  up  to  75  per 
cent  barytes.  The  so-called  Kremnitz  white  is  a  pure  white 
lead.  It  is  produced  by  placing  trays  containing  a  paste 
made  of  litharge  and  either  acetic  acid  or  lead  acetate  upon 
shelves  in  a  chamber  built  of  brick  or  wood.  When  the 
chamber  is  filled  carbonic  acid  gas  is  sent  into  it  and  is 
absorbed  by  the  lead  oxide  present  in  the  paste. 

Zinc  White  or  Zinc  Oxide  has,  in  recent  years,  made  great 
advances  in  popularity  among  painters.  Compared  to  white 
lead,  it  is  as  white  to  yellow.  It  is  indeed  beautifully  white, 
very  fine,  and  easily  worked.  The  whiteness  is  of  impor- 
tance in  mixing  paints,  as  the  purity  of  color  is  retained, 
while  when  mixed  with  lead  the  yellowish  east  to  some  ex- 
tent destroys  the  jDurity  of  the  original  color.  The  fact  that 
oxide  of  zinc  is  non-poisonous  is  a  point  in  its  favor  of 
very  considerable  importance.  It  is  claimed  that  paiuters 
who  take  care  to  wash  themselves  frequently  and  to  take 
every  precaution,  are  not  likely  to  contract  lead  poisoning. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  best  of  painters  are  at  times  careless, 
while  in  the  rush  of  work,  it  is  often  impossible  to  take 
the  precautions  required.  The  most  important  quality  of 
zinc  white  is  its  extreme  durability. 

Properly  mixed  it  will  last,  at  a  moderate  estimate,  twice 
as  long  as  lead,  especially  in  large  cities  where  the  air  is 
impregnated  with  sulphur  derived  from  burning  coal.  Lead, 
in  such   circumstances,   turns  yellow  or  black  and  quickly 


302  CYCLOPEDLV   OF   PAINTING 

decays,  and  some  places,  such  as  stables,  where  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  abounds,  it  is  useless  to  jDaint  with  Avhite  lead, 
and  if  zinc  is  used  these  disadvantages  are  avoided. 

Zinc  white  has  a  very  good  body,  better,  or  as  good  as 
white  lead.  If  a  proper  comparison  be  made,  and  if  both 
be  thinned  out  to  a  consistency  suitable  to  be  applied  by 
brush,  it  is  true  that  zinc  white  will  apparentl}'  not  have 
so  good  body  as  lead,  but  it  will  spread  much  farther.  If 
an  exactly  equal  quantity  of  lead  and  zinc  are  both  i^ainted 
on  an  exactly  equal  area,  zinc  will  cover  a  little  better  than 
lead.  In  this  state,  however,  the  consistency  of  the  zinc 
paint  would  be  rather  too  thick.  It  is  easily  thinned,  more 
so,  comparativel}',  than  the  lead  would  be. 

A  consideration  of  these  facts  will  show  the  practical 
painter  that  less  zinc  than  lead  will  be  required  to  perform 
a  good  job,  and  when  the  durability  is  also  taken  into  con- 
sideration as  well  as  the  beaut}-,  it  will  not  take  long  for 
him  to  make  up  his  mind  as  to  the  superiority  of  zinc. 

There  is  one  point,  however,  about  its  use  which  must  be 
explained.  Zinc  white  is,  when  compared  with  lead,  quite 
light  in  weight,  or,  in  other  words,  its  volume  is  much 
greater  than  lead.  Now,  it  being  an  entirely  different  prod- 
uct, it  must  not  be  treated  in  the  same  way  as  lead  would 
be.  The  painter,  perhaps,  takes  some  zinc,  mixes  it  with 
raw  oil,  with  a  liberal  amount  of  patent  driers  and  a  more 
liberal  dose  of  turiDentine,  and  then  he  grumbles  because  it 
does  not  show  up  to  advantage.  What  he  does  is  to  destroy 
its  inherent  good  qualities.  To  repeat  then,  zinc  Avhite 
must  not  be  ti-eated  in  the  same  way  as  white  lead. 

The  proper  way  to  treat  zinc  white  is  to  mix  it  with 
refined  boiled  oil,  no  driers  should  be  used,  and  only  just 
sufficient  turpentine  to  bring  it  to  the  required  consistency. 
Being  pale,  it  does  not  destroy  the  whiteness  of  the  zinc, 
while  it  certainly  aids  considerably  in  drying.  In  fact,  it 
is  the  only  practical  drier  for  the  zinc,  far  better  than  patent 
driers,  or  any  other  goods  of  the  kind.    It  is  paler  than  raw 


PIGMENTS  303 

linseed  oil,  and  hence  it  does  not  destroy  the  most  delicate 
tints,  howevei'  light. 

PIGMENTS  LIABLE  TO  CHANGE  UNDER  THE  INFLU- 
ENCE OF  SULPHURETTED  HYDROGEN, 
AIR  AND  MOISTURE. 

Yellow.     Chrome  yellow,  mineral  yellow,  Naples  yellow. 

White.     Cremintz  white,  flake  white,  pearl  white. 

Red.     Red  lead,  purple  led,  iodine  scarlet. 

Green.     Verdigris,   Scheele's  green,  emerald  green,  moun- 
tain green. 

Blue.     Prussian  blue,  Antwerp  blue. 

Orange.     Orange  chrome. 

PIGMENTS  LITTLE  LIABLE  TO  CHANGE  UNDER  THE 
INFLUENCE  OF  SULPHURETTED  HYDRO- 
GEN, AIR  AND  MOISTURE. 

White.     Zinc  white,  constant  white,  tin  white. 

Red.     Vermilion,  red  ochre,  Indian  red,  madder  lakes. 

Yellow.      Yellow   ochre,   barium   ehromate,   zinc   chromate, 
aureolin,  raw  sienna. 

Green.     Chrome  green,  cobalt  green. 

Blue.     L'ltramarine,  smalt,  Thenard's  blue. 

Brown.     Vandyke  brown,  raw  umber,  burnt  umber,  man- 
ganese  brown,   sepia. 

Black.     Ivory  black,  lamp  black,  Indian  ink,  graphite. 

Orange.     Orange  vermilion,  burnt  sienna. 

PIGMENTS   LIABLE    TO    DETERIORATION   WHEN   IN 
CONTACT  WITH  WHITE  LEAD,  CHROME  OR 
OTHER   LEAD   PIGMENT. 
Yellow.     Yellow   orpiment,   king's   yellow,   Indian   yellow, 
gamboge. 

Red.     Iodine   scarlet,  cochineal,   carmine. 

Orange.     Golden  antimony  sulphide,  orange  orpiment. 

Green.     Sap  green. 

Blue.     Ultramarine. 


304  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

PIGMENTS     WHICH     ARE     LITTLE    AFFECTED     BY 
HEAT,  AND  WHICH  MAY  BE  USED  WHEN  THE 
MATERIAL  HAS   TO    STAND   FIRE. 
White.  Tin  white,  barium  white,  zinc  white. 
Red.     Red  ochre,  Venetian  red,  Indian  red. 
Yellow.     Naples  yellow,  antimony  yellow. 
Blue.     Smalt  and  royal  blue,  ultramarine. 
Green.     Chrome  green,  cobalt  green. 
Orange.     Burnt  sienna,  burnt  ochre. 
Brown.     Burnt  umber,  manganese  brown. 
Black.     Graphite,  mineral  black. 

COLORS  THAT  MAY  BE  USED  WITH  LIME. 

White.  Permanent  white,  baryta  white,  gypsum,  zinc 
white. 

Red.  The  vermilions,  light  red,  Venetian  red,  Indian  red, 
madder  lakes. 

Orange.  Cadmium,  orange  chrome.  Mars  orange,  burnt 
sienna,  burnt  Roman  ochre,  light  red. 

Yellow.  Aureolin,  cadmium  yellow,  lemon  yellow,  Naples 
yellow.  Mars  yellow,  raw  sienna,  yellow  ochi-e,  Roman  ochre, 
transparent  gold  ochre,  brown  ochre,  Indian  yellow,  Oxford 
ochre. 

Green.  Oxide  of  chromium,  transparent  oxide  of  chrom- 
ium, viridian,  emerald  green,  malachite  green,  verdigris,  terre 
verte,  cobalt  green,  chi-ome  green. 

Blue.  Genuine  ultramarine,  artificial  ultramarine,  new 
blue,  permanent  blue,   cobalt  blue,  cerulean  blue,  smalt. 

Purple.     Purple  madder.  Mars  violet. 

Brown.  Bone  brown,  bistre,  Prussian  brown,  burnt  um- 
ber, Vienna  brown,  Vandyke  brown,  Cologne  earth,  asphalt- 
um,  Cassel  earth,  manganese  brown. 

Citrine.     Raw  uml)er,   Mars  brown. 

Blacks.  Ivory  black,  lamp  black,  blue  black,  charcoal 
black,  cork  black,  Indian  ink,  black  lead,  drop  black,  plum- 
bago. 


PLAIN  OIL  PAINTING. 

The  processes  of  plain  oil  painting  are  in  themselves  ex- 
tremely simple,  and  depend  so  much  on  manipulative  skill 
that  a  description  of  them  must  be  taken  only  as  a  general 
guide,  not  by  any  means  sufficient  in  itself  to  make  a  good 
paintei'.  This  result  is  not  arrived  at  by  theoretical  knowl- 
edge alone,  however  sound,  but  by  long-continued  and  ear- 
nest practice. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  must  be  urged  on  the  attention  of 
painters  the  fact  that  practice  alone  will  not  accomplish 
the  end  desired;  a  painter  who  can  only  spread  a  quantity 
of  paint  over  a  given  surface  is  little  better  than  a  machine, 
and  it  is  hoped  by  the  instruction  given  in  the  following 
pages,  to  awaken  the  interest  of  the  painter,  and  to  show 
him  that  his  occupation  is  not  merely  manual,  but  that  each 
branch  of  the  trade,  if  properly  understood,  will  afford 
scope  for  the  exercise  of  mental  acquirements  and  for  the 
application  of  knowledge. 

Before  the  painter  can  commence  the  absolute  process  of 
painting  new  work,  it  is  necessary  that  he  should  clear  it 
from  any  drops  of  glue  or  whitening  which  may  have  fallen 
on  the  surface,  or  which  may  have  been  accidentally  left  by 
the  carpenter. 

In  this  operation  he  uses  the  stopping  knife.  This  knife 
is  held  so  that  a  large  portion  of  its  edge  may  touch  the 
surface,  and  it  is  slanted  so  as  to  be  nearly  horizontal,  and 
thus  the  edge  works  as  it  were  under  the  pieces  of  glue  and 
putty  and  lifts  rather  than  scrapes  them  oft".  Care  must  be 
taken  that  the  knife  is  not  held  so  that  its  surface  would 
be  perpendicular  to  the  wood,  and  that  onl^^  the  smallest 
possible  pressure  is  used,  otherwise  indentations  might  be 
made,  and  thus  more  harm  than  good  would  be  done. 

305 


306  CYCLOPEDIA    OP   PAINTING 

It  must  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  tliis  ])rocess  is  not  to 
be  a  universal  scraping;  it  is  merely  remedial,  to  remove  any 
excrescences  which  may  exist,  but  its  puipose  is  not  to 
scraj^e  or  plane  the  wood.  This  is  supposed  to  have  been 
already  done  by  the  carpenter,  and  if  it  has  not,  a  tool  differ- 
ent  from   the  stopping  knife  sliould  be  used. 

The  dusting  brush,  generally  called  the  duster,  must  be 
freely  used  during  this  process  so  that  all  the  particles 
scraped  off  may  be  removed.  The  largest  of  the  brushes 
used  for  painting  is  sometimes  employed  as  a  duster  pre- 
viously to  being  devoted  to  its  proper  purpose,  in  order 
that  it  may  be  rendered  softer;  but  this  is  not  a  good  plan, 
for  a  certain  amount  of  dust  necessarily  finds  its  way  up 
the  brush,  and  is  liable  to  work  out  when  it  is  being  used 
for  painting  purposes,  thus  giving  the  work  a  coarse  and 
gritty   appearance   and   causing  much  annoyance. 

The  next  stage  of  preparation  is  that  called  knotting, 
the  purpose  of  which  is  to  guard  against  the  knots  appear- 
ing in  the  finished  work,  by  stop2:)ing  their  absorbent  qual- 
ity, or  closing  the  apertures  of  the  fibre,  and  thus  prevent- 
ing the  effusion  of  gum  or  sap.  It  is,  of  course,  strongly 
urged  that  wood  should  be  thoroughly  dry  before  it  is 
used,  but  this  is  not  within  the  power  of  the  painter  to 
control;  he  must  take  the  wood  as  he  finds  it,  and  must 
do  his  best  to  counteract  the  effects  of  the  new  wood  on 
his  work. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  in  the  knots  the  ends  of 
fibres,  which  are  so  many  open  tubes,  are  exposed,  and  thus, 
if  all  the  sap  or  gum  has  exuded,  they  will  present  spots 
very  much  more  absorbent  than  the  surface  of  the  board 
itself,  whilst  if  the  wood  be  new  and  the  gum  and  sap 
fiesh  in  it,  these  will  from  time  to  time  exude  and  force 
off  the  paint,  or  cause  it  to  become  stick}'. 

Patent  Knotting  may  be  purchased  at  the  color  shops, 
and    the    following    are    two    excellent    recipes    for    making 


PLAIN    OIL    PAINTING  307 

similar  compositions,  which  arc  to  be  applied  with  a  brush 
of  the  second  size  called  a  tool. 

Add  together  a  quarter  of  a  pint  of  japanner's  gold  size, 
one  teaspoonful  of  red  lead,  one  pint  of  naphtha  and  seven 
ounces  of  orange  shellac.  This  mixture  is  to  be  kept  in  a 
warm  place  whilst  the  shellac  dissolves  and  must  be  fre- 
.quently  shaken. 

White  or  rod  lead  iwwdcr  mixed  with  glue  size  and  ap- 
plied whilst  warm. 

Knotting  is  a  composition  of  strong  size,  mixed  with  red 
lead  for  the  first  knotting,  which  prevents  the  gum  com- 
ing through;  the  second  knotting  is  a  composition  of  white 
lead,  red  lead  and  oil,  but  in  rooms  where  the  knots  happen 
to  be  very  bad  they  are  often  silvered,  which  is  done  by 
laying  on  a  coat  of  gold  size  and  when  properly  dry  a  silver 
leaf  is  placed  on  them,  which  is  sure  to  prevent  the  knots 
appearing. 

When  the  knots  are  more  than  usually  bad  they  must  be 
cut  out. 

Priming.  The  first  process  of  painting  is  called  priming, 
which  consists  of  laying  on  a  coat  of  paint  for  the  special 
purpose  of  diminishing  the  absorbent  quality  of  the  wood 
or  plaster.  The  paint  used  for  this  puipose  is  generally  a 
mixture  of  white  lead  and  red  lead,  with  a  proper  propor- 
tion of  driers;  but  when  the  finishing  color  is  to  be  black, 
dark  green  or  dark  brown  the  priming  may  be  done  with 
a  lead  color  made  of  vegetable  black  and  white  lead  in 
equal  quantities. 

These  colors  should  be  mixed  with  boiled  oil  for  out- 
of-door,  and  with  linseed  oil  for  in-door  work,  a  small 
quantity  of  turpentine  being  added  in  either  case,  the  pro- 
portions being  three  parts  of  oil  to  one  of  turpentine.  The 
paint  should  be  rather  thin  so  that  it  may  be  well  adapted 
for  rapid  absorption  by  the  new  wood  or  plaster. 

Some   painters,   in   order   to   save   the   oil   coats,   have   re- 


308  CYCLOPEDIA   OF  PAINTING 

sorted  to  the  objectionable  practice  of  spreading  a  coat  of 
size  mixed  with  water  and  whiting  over  the  new  work. 

This  may  serve  for  temporary  purposes,  but  it  will  soon 
be  seen  that  it  should  not  be  adopted  in  good  work  or  where 
durability  is  expected.  To  a  certain  extent  the  size  stops 
the  absorbent  powers  of  the  wood  or  plaster,  but  it  pre- 
vents the  proper  adhesion  of  the  oil  paint,  which  soon 
cracks  or  peels  off.  It  maj',  however,  be  used  with  advan- 
tage in  old  work,  where  the  grease  would  prevent  the  proper 
drj'ing  of  the  oil  paint,  but  even  in  such  cases  it  is  best, 
when  possible,  to  scrape  the  wood  or  plaster  until  a  new 
surface  is  reached,  on  which  the  oil  paint  may  be  success- 
fully applied. 

"When  the  priming  is  thoroughly  dry,  it  is  to  be  rubbed 
down  with  glass  paper  and  this  operation,  although  in  it- 
self simple,  requires  a  certain  amount  of  care  so  that  the 
rubbing  may  be  equally  effective  over  the  whole  surface. 
In  order  that  this  result  may  be  attained,  the  glass  paper  used 
should  not  be  a  mere  scrap,  rubbed  carelessly  about  in  vari- 
ous directions,  by  which  means  some  parts  will  be  passed 
over  oftener  than  others,  and  the  paint  may  be  nearly 
rubbed  off  in  one  spot  whilst  it  is  left  almost  untouched 
on  another.  A  piece  of  the  paper  should  be  wrapped  round 
a  flat  piece  of  wood,  say  4  inches  long  by  3  inches  wide 
and  1  inch  thick,  forming  a  kind  of  brush,  and  this  should 
be  rubbed  equally  over  the  whole  surface,  which  will  thus 
be  nicely  smoothed,  whilst  its  perfectly  level  character 
will  not  be  injured.  A  piece  of  glass  paper  which  has 
been  used  several  times  in  this  way  should  be  saved  for 
use  in  the  later  stages  of  the  work,  when  great  refinement 
is  required.  A  strip  of  glass  paper  may  be  wrapped  over 
the  edge  of  a  piece  of  wood  shaped  like  a  chisel  for  use 
in  the  edges  of  panels  and  similar  situations,  or  round  the 
finger  or  a  piece  of  rag  for  the  curved  parts  of  mouldings, 
great  care  being  taken  that  a  stiff  edge,  such  as  is  formed 
by  a  sudden  bend  in  the  glass  paper,  may  not  come  in  con- 


PLAIN    OIL    PAINTING  309 

tact  with  the  work,  producing  scratches  which  are  very 
troublesome  to  get  rid  of.  Al]  the  dust  caused  by  the  glass 
paper  must  be  carefully  removed  by  means  of  the  duster. 
When  the  priming  has  been  properly  rubbed  down  the  next 
operation  is  that  of  stopping. 

Stopping  consists  in  filling  in  and  making  good  all  nail- 
holes,  bad  joints  and  cracks  with  putty,  or  with  a  paste 
made  of  putty  and  white  lead,  called  hard  stopping;  this 
is  done  with  the  stopping  knife. 

This  is  another  of  the  operations  which,  although  simple, 
require  a  certain  amount  of  care,  lest  instead  of  contribut- 
ing to,  they  may  mar  the  success  of  the  work.  Thus  let  it 
be  required  to  stop  a  crack  in  a  panel ;  it  will  not  be  suffi- 
cient merely  to  press  into  the  interstice  a  small  quantity 
of  stopping  and  then  smooth  it  over,  for  as  the  stopping 
dries  it  contracts  and  sinks  below  the  surface,  and  the 
crack  becomes  just  as  great  an  eye-sore  as  ever. 

In  such  a  case,  the  stopping  should  be  forced  as  far 
down  into  the  crack  as  possible;  this  may  be  done  with  the 
edge  of  the  stopping  knife,  or  with  a  thin  piece  of  wood, 
leaving  the  stopping,  however,  slightly  raised  above  the  sur- 
face. In  a  day  or  two,  before  the  second  painting  is  pro- 
ceeded with,  the  stopping  will,  owing  to  a  certain  amount 
of  shrinking  during  drying,  be  found  nearly  level  with  the 
panel  and  may  then  be  smoothed  down  with  the  stopping 
knife. 

The  circumstance  calling  for  the  greatest  care  in  stop- 
ping, is  where  a  panel  or  other  part  of  the  work  has  re- 
ceived a  blow  and  a  delve  or  shallow  concavity  is  formed, 
for  it  will  be  clear  that  the  mere  skin  of  stopping  required 
to  level  up  such  a  spot,  would  be  almost  certain  to  crack 
off,  leaving  the  place  totally  uncovered  by  paint.  The  best 
way  to  avoid  such  a  result  is  to  deepen  the  recess  in  parts 
by  pricking  holes  in  it  with  a  bradawl  and  these  should  in- 
cline in  different  directions  and  should  be  more  closely 
placed    and    more    numerous    near    the    edges    than    in    the 


310  CYCLOPEDIA    OF   PAINTING 

middle  of  the  space.  The  point  of  tlie  stopping-knife  may 
he  used  for  this  purpose,  and  deep  fissures  will  be  formed 
thereby;  into  these  fissures  or  holes  the  stopping  is  to  be 
forced  and  the  portion  spread  over  the  delve  will  thus  be 
as  it  were  nailed  to  the  wood  by  the  filaments  penetrating 
into  the  holes. 

This  process  should  be  sloAvly  done,  an  interval  being 
allowed  to  elapse  betAveen  the  first  and  second  stopping, 
but  this  is  supposing  a  condition  which  cannot  always  be 
fulfilled;  the  exigencies  of  business  in  these  days  of  high 
pressure  demanding  that  work  shall  be  pushed  on  with  the 
utmost  rapidity;  but  it  is  desired  to  point  out  the  means 
by  which  failure  may  be  avoided,  and  the  intelligent  painter, 
knowing  this,  will  be  able  in  most  cases  to  arrange  his 
work  in  such  a  way  that  some  portions  may  be  proceeded 
with  whilst  the  necessarj^  delay  is  afforded  to  others,  and 
thus,  by  economy  of  time,  and  proper  organization  of  labor, 
the  desired  end  may  be  accomplished. 

The  surface  having  been  again  touched  off  with  the  glass 
paper,  the  second  painting  is  to  be  proceeded  with.  For 
the  second  coat,  the  same  paint  used  for  the  priming,  or 
white  lead  thinned  with  oil  and  a  little  turpentine  and 
driers,  may  be  employed,  the  proportion  of  driers  for  ordi- 
nary cases  being  lYo  ounces  to  10  pounds  of  white  lead, 
but  in  winter,  or  in  a  damp  climate,  the  jjroportion  of  driers 
must  be  increased.  The  following  useful  hints  are  here 
given : 

It  should  be  observed  that  second  color  for  new  work 
is  made  up  chiefly  witli  oil,  as  it  best  stops  the  suction  of 
the  wood,  but  second  color  for  old  work  is  made  up  chiefly 
with  turpentine,  because  oil  color  would  not  dry  or  adhere 
to  it  so  well. 

The  color  should  be  spread  on  as  evenly  as  possible, 
and  to  effect  this  as  soon  as  the  whole  or  a  convenient 
quantity  is  covered,  the  brush  should  be  passed  over  it  in 
a  direction  contrary  to  that  in  which  it  is  finally  to  be  laid 


PLAIN    OIL    PAINTING  311 

off;  this  is  called  crossing.  After  crossing  it  should  be  laid 
off  softly  and  carefully  in  a  direction  contrary  to  the  cross- 
ings, but  with  the  grain  of  the  wood,  taking  care  that  none 
of  the  cross  brush  marks  be  left  visible.  The  criterion  of 
good  workmanship  is,  that  the  paint  be  laid  evenly  and  the 
brush  marks  be  not  observed.  In  laying  off,  the  brush 
should  be  laid  into  that  portion  of  the  work  already  done, 
that  the  joining  may  not  be  perceived.  Every  coat  should 
be  perfectly  dry,  and  all  dust  carefully  removed  before  the 
succeeding  one  is  laid  over  it. 

In  the  third  jjainting  some  apiDroaeh  is  made  to  the 
finishing  color.  Thus,  if  the  finishing  color  is  to  be  laven- 
der, Irhe  third  coat  should  consist  of  white,  slightly  tinted 
with  that  color.  In  some  cases  it  is  desirable  that  the  coat 
preceding  the  finishing  should  be  darker  than  that  which 
is  to  be  laid  ove*-  it. 

In  the  third  painting,  the  oil  and  turpentine  should  be 
used  in  equal  proportions. 

The  fourth  may  be  considered  as  the  finishing  coat,  al- 
though a  fifth  is  often  given,  and  always  Avith  great  advan- 
tage. The  finishing  coat  must  not  by  any  means  be  aiDplied 
unless  the  third  coat  proves  perfectly  satisfactory;  that  is, 
unless  the  surface  has  dried  absolutely  uniform,  as  regards 
surface,  for  if  one  part  is  glossy  and  the  other  dull  it  will 
be  clear  that  the  absorbent  quality  is  not  stopped  and  the 
third  painting  must  be  repeated. 

In  commencing  to  repaint  old  work,  the  surface  should, 
in  the  first  case,  be  gone  over  with  the  stopping  knife,  re- 
moving all  excrescences,  and  it  is  then  to  be  rubbed  with 
pumice  stone  and  water,  the  greasy  parts  being  well  rubbed 
with  turpentine. 

Parts  from  which  the  paint  has  been  entirely  removed 
and  decayed  patches  must  then  be  gone  over  with  a  coat 
of  priming  color,  and  cracks  and  holes  are  to  be  made  good 
with  stopping.  The  first  coat  is  then  to  be  given  and  this 
is  to  be  mixed   with   turpentine.     The  quality  of   the  next 


312  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

coat  will  depend  on  the  manner  in  which  it  is  to  be  fin- 
ished. If  it  is  to  be  painted  twice  in  oil  and  flatted,  the 
next  coat  should  be  mixed  up  chiefly  in  oil,  and  tinted  like 
the  finishing  color  to  form  a  ground  for  the  flatting.  The 
greater  the  gloss  of  the  ground,  the  more  dead  will  be  the 
finishing  coat,  or  flatting;  likewise,  the  more  dead  the 
ground  the  better  will  the  finishing  oil  shine.  It  is,  there- 
fore, a  general  rule,  that  for  finishing  in  oil  the  undercoat 
should  be  turpentine,  and  for  finishing  flat  the  undercoat 
or  ground  color  should  be  oil;  but  all  tui"pentine  grounds 
must  have  a  little  oil  mixed  with  them,  and  all  oil  under- 
coats must  have  a  small  quantity  of  turpentine  added  to 
them,  excepting  the   priming  or  first  coat  in  new  work. 

In  order  to  attain  an  absolutely  solid  appearance,  some 
painters  apply  two  coats  of  the  finishing  color,  b}'  which 
no  doubt  uniformity  is  secured,  but  the  expense  is,  of  course, 
materially  increased  therebj'.  There  are,  however,  pig- 
ments of  a  cheaper  but  still  permanent  character,  which 
approach  in  tone  to  the  verj^  best,  and  these  may  with  ad- 
vantage be  used  as  a  first  finishing  coat,  over  which  the 
final  color  may  be  applied.  Such  colors  must  be  carefully 
selected  and  must  be  well  covered  by  the  finishing  coat. 

Flatting,  When  the  work  is  to  be  flatted,  that  is,  when 
it  is  desired  that  the  paint  when  drj'  should  present  a  flat 
or  dull  appearance  without  any  gloss,  the  paint  used  for 
the  previous  coat  should  be  rather  thicker  than  would  un- 
der other  circumstances  be  used ;  it  should  be  mixed  with 
linseed  oil  and  turpentine  and  should  be  rather  darker  than 
the  flatting  itself  is  to  be. 

Special  care  is  necessary  in  laying  all  the  coats  which 
precede  the  flatting;  they  must  be  very  evenly  spread  and 
must  be  smoothed  with  glass  paper  in  order  that  they 
may  be  perfectly  level,  otherwise  the  smallest  irregularities 
will  appear  in  the  finished  surface,  to  the  injury  of  that 
perfectly  flat  appearance  in  which  the  beauty  of  the  work 
consists. 


PLAIN    OIL   PAINTING  313 

The  paint  used  in  flatting  consists  of  white  lead  with 
which,  of  course,  the  necessary  coloring  matter  is  mixed, 
turpentine  alone  being  used  as  the  medium  with  which  the 
paint  is  thinned.  The  color  should  be  rather  lighter  than 
is  required,  as  it  darkens  a  little  whilst  drying;  a  brushful 
should  therefore  be  tried  before  the  whole  surface  is  paint- 
ed in  order  to  avoid  subsequent  disappointment.  In  order 
to  assist  in  drying,  japanners'  gold  size  is  sometimes  used 
instead  of  driers. 

Although  it  is,  of  course,  necessary  that  the  coat  pre- 
ceding the  flatting  should  be  dry,  it  ought  not  to  be  abso- 
lutely hard,  for  it  is  necessary  that  the  flatting,  which  is 
mixed  with  turpentine  only,  should  slightly  dissolve  the 
surface,  so  as  to  become  in  a  degree  incorporated  with  it, 
by  which  much  beauty  and  solidity  is  obtained,  whereas,  if 
the  previous  coat  had  become  quite  hard  the  flatting  would 
in  most  cases  appear  streaky  when  dry  and  would  be  liable 
to  crack  or  peel  off. 

Owing  to  the  special  composition  of  the  paint  used  in 
flatting,  it  dries  very  rapidly  and  two  men  should  be  en- 
gaged at  once  in  flatting  a  wall.  A  plank  placed  across  two 
step-ladders,  or  otherwise  supported,  is  placed  in  front  of 
the  wall  at  about  half  the  height  from  the  ground.  One 
of  the  painters  stands  on  this  whilst  the  other  stands  on 
the  ground.  The  last  mentioned  commences  the  woi'k,  paint- 
ing a  strip  about  18  inches  wide  and  carrying  it  up  as 
high  as  he  can  conveniently  reach,  he  works  rapidly,  cross- 
ing occasionally,  so  that  no  brush  marks  in  any  one  direc- 
tion may  be  visible,  laying  off  very  lightly;  that  is,  con- 
tinuing the  action  of  his  brush,  withdrawing  it  gradually 
so  that  the  points  of  the  hairs  may  only  skim  lightly  over 
the  work. 

The  painter  above  proceeds  with  the  operation  from  the 
line  where  his  fellow  painter  left  it,  and  carries  it  up  to 
the  top  of  the  wall,  the  first  painter  meanwhile  getting  on 
with  another  strip,  both  painters  being  exceedingly  careful 


314  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

that  no  break  shall  occur  and  that  the  lines  at  which  their 
"work  join  shall  not  be  visible  in  the  slightest  degree. 

Brushes  called  stipplers  are  much  used;  these  are  broad 
and  flat,  and  in  form  resemble  a  hairbrush.  In  practice  the 
stipi^lers  are  gently  dabbed  against  the  wet  paint,  produc- 
ing a  level  grain  over  the  whole  surface,  something  like  the 
tooth  on  the  drawing  paper  called  not  hotpressed.  These 
brushes  may  be  obtained  of  various  shapes,  the  handles 
of  some  being  continuous  with  the  back,  whilst  in  others 
it  is  fixed  above,  like  that  of  a  black-lead  brush.  The  adop- 
tion cf  either  form  is,  of  course,  a  matter  of  taste. 

In  flatting  a  door,  the  panels  must  be  finished  first,  great 
care  being  taken  to  carry  the  paint  clean  into  the  edges  and 
corners.  The  stiles  or  framing  should  then  be  done.  It  is 
convenient  to  paint  the  muntins,  or  munnions,  first;  these 
are  the  upright  pieces  in  the  middle  of  the  door.  Next  to 
these  come  the  upper,  middle  and  lower  rails,  the  horizon- 
tals which  cross  the  door,  and  lastly  the  upright  stiles, 
or  external  vertical  portions  of  the  frame  of  the  door.  The 
brush  marks,  should  any  appear  at  the  parts  where  the 
work  is  necessarily  in  cross  directions,  will  corresjiond  with 
the  joints  which  would  in  reality  exist  at  these  parts. 

Painting  Plaster.  The  first  coat  is  composed  of  white 
lead  mixed  with  linseed  oil  and  a  small  quantity  of  litharge, 
the  paint  being  rather  thinner  than  would  be  used  for  gen- 
eral purposes,  in  order  that  it  may  soak  well  into  the  ab- 
sorbent surface  of  the  plaster.  The  next  coat  should  also 
be  thin  so  that  the  plaster  may  be  thoroughly  saturated. 
This  will  be  only  partially  absorbed,  and  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  make  the  third  coat  much  thicker,  mixing  with  it 
turpentine,  and  some  of  the  coloring  matter  approaching 
the  future  tint  of  the  room.  The  fourth  coat  should  be 
thicker  still  and  should  be  mixed  with  equal  parts  of  oil 
and  turpentine,  together  with  the  dry  ingredient,  sugar  of 
lead,  instead  of  litharge.  The  color  should  be  much  darker 
than   that    which    is    to   constitute   the   finishing   coat.     All 


PLAIN    OIL   PAINTING  315 

these  coats  must  be  laid  on  with  the  greatest  attention  as 
to  smoothing,  and  tliey  should  each  be  thoroughly  dry  before 
the  succeeding  coat  is  applied,  and  should  be  well  rubbed 
down  with  glass  paper.  The  last  coat  which  is  to  precede 
the  flatting,  however,  should  not  be  quite  hardened  before 
the  finishing  is  applied  for  reasons  previously  explained. 
The  process  of  flatting  has  already  been  described. 

Painting  New  Walls  or  Stucco.  It  does  not  appear  that 
any  painting  in  oil  can  be  done  to  any  good  or  serviceable 
effect  in  stucco,  unless  not  merely  the  surface  is  dry,  but 
the  walls  have  been  erected  a  sufficient  time  to  permit  the 
mass  of  brickwork  to  have  acquired  a  sufficient  degree  of 
dryness. 

When  stucco  is  on  battened  work,  it  may  be  painted  over 
much  sooner  than  when  prepared  as  brick.  Indeed,  the 
greater  part  of  the  mystery  of  painting  stucco  so  as  to 
stand  or  wear  well,  certainly  consists  in  attending  to  these 
observations,  for  whoever  has  observed  the  expansive  power 
of  water,  not  only  in  congelation,  but  also  in  evaporation, 
must  be  well  aware  that  when  it  meets  with  any  foreign 
body  obstructing  its  escape,  as  oil  paint,  for  instance, 
it  immediately  resists  it,  forming  a  number  of  vesicles  or 
particles,  containing  an  acrid  lime  water  which  forces  off 
the  layers  of  plaster,  and  frequently  causes  large  defective 
2jatches  extremely  difficult  to  get  the  better  of. 

Perhaps  in  general  cases,  where  persons  are  building  on 
their  own  property,  or  for  themselves,  two  or  three  years 
are  not  too  long  to  suffer  the  stucco  to  remain  unpainted ; 
though  frequently  in  speculative  works  as  many  weeks  are 
scarcely  allowed.  Indeed,  there  are  some  nostrums  set  forth 
in  favor  of  which  it  is  stated,  in  spite  of  all  the  natural 
properties  of  bodies,  that  stucco  may,  after  having  been 
washed  over  with  these  liquids,  be  painted  immediately  with 
oil  colors.  It  is  true  there  may  be  instances,  and  in  manj' 
experiments  some  will  be  found,  that  appear  to  counteract 


316  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  PAINTING 

the  general  laws  of  nature,  but  on  following  them  up  to 
their  causes  it  will  be  found  otherwise. 

Supposing  the  foregoing  precautions  to  have  been  at- 
tended to,  there  can  be  no  better  mode  adopted  for  prim- 
ing or  laying  on  the  first  coat  on  stucco  than  by  linseed  or 
nut  oil  boiled  with  driers,  with  a  proper  brush,  taking  care 
in  all  cases  not  to  lay  on  too  much  so  as  to  render  the  sur- 
face rough  and  iiTegular,  and  not  more  than  the  stucco 
will  absorb.  It  should  then  be  covered  with  three  or  four 
coats  of  ceruse  or  white  lead,  prepared  as  described  for 
painting  on  w^ainscoting,  letting  each  coat  have  sufficient 
time  to  dry  hard. 

If  time  will  permit,  two  or  three  days  between  each  coat 
will  not  be  too  long.  If  the  stucco  is  intended  to  be  fin- 
ished of  any  given  tint,  as  gray,  light  green  or  apricot,  it 
will  then  be  proper,  about  the  third  coat  of  painting,  to 
prepare  the  ground  for  such  tint  by  a  slight  advance  towards 
it. 


POOR  TOOLS. 

It  is  false  economy  to  work  with  poor  or  cheap  brushes. 
A  good  painter  can  not  do  good  work,  or  the  amount  of 
work  he  should,  with  poor  tools. 

Time  is  money  and  time  is  lost  by  trying  to  paint  with 
a  cheap  stock  brush. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  try  to  work  half-handed  or  with  too 
few  brushes. 

The  kit  should  consist  of  a  good  full  stock  body  brush 
for  each  color,  the  size  depending  upon  the  width  of  the 
siding  to  be  painted,  3I/2  to  4  inches  long  stock  brush  is  the 
one  usually  used,  a  full  stock  trimming ,  brush,  well  broken 
in.  There  is  no  economy  in  using  a  half  worn  out  body 
brush  for  trimming  colors.  A  good  trimming  brush  is  just 
as  essential  as  a  good  body  brush,  as  it  is  impossible  to  cut 
in  on  cornices,  corner  boai'ds  and  window  and  sash  frames 
with  a  ragged  edged  brush,  a  good  chiseled  sash  tool  or  a 
1  inch  or  IV2  inch  chiseled  varnish  brush  for  brackets  or 
mouldings,  also  a  ^  inch  flat  chiseled  varnish  brush  for 
sash  colors,  a  good  duster  and  putty  and  scraping  knife. 
This  completes  an  ordinary  kit  of  tools  and  is  sufficient  to  do 
good  work.    It  is  not  economy  to  attempt  to  work  with  less. 


317 


PRIMARY  COLORS. 

The  painter  who  wishes  to  obtain  a  correct  knowledge  of 
his  trade  should,  in  the  first  place,  endeavor  to  make  him- 
self acquainted  with  the  nature  and  properties  of  the  ma- 
terials he  is  constantly  using. 

The  ambition  of  a  man  of  intelligence  should  be  to  rise 
above  the  position  of  a  mere  drudge,  and  he  should,  there- 
fore, by  availing  himself  of  the  opportunities  of  culture 
at  his  command,  endeavor  to  develop  the  faculties  with 
which  Almighty  Providence  has  endowed   him. 

Nor  will  the  time  spent  in  the  acquirement  of  knowledge 
be  wasted,  for  good  workmanship  will  always  command  its 
price,  and  thus  a  painter,  who  improves  his  scientific  and 
technical  education,  will  without  fail  rise  in  the  social  scale, 
with  benefit  to  himself,  his  family  and  his  country. 

The  facility  wdth  which  ready-prepared  colors  can  now 
be  obtained  has  no  doubt  led  to  a  neglect  of  infoi'mation 
as  to  their  composition  or  special  qualities,  a  small  amount 
of  knowledge  only  being  picked  up  in  the  course  of  pi-ac- 
tice  from  the  men  with  whom  each  painter  is  associated, 
and  who  have  obtained  their  own  information  in  a  similar 
unreliable  manner. 

It  is  not  here  intended  to  advocate  the  idea  that  each 
workman  should,  as  in  olden  times,  manufacture  his  own 
colors  and  varnishes;  the  rate  of  wages  as  compared  with 
the  expenses  at  the  present  day  wholly  forbid  such  a  sys- 
tem; but  it  is  strongly  urged  that  the  painter  should  know 
the  qualities  of  the  various  substances  he  employs  in  order 
that  he  may  judge  of  their  fitness  for  every  kind  of  work, 
and  likewise  that  he  should  be  able  to  prepare  them  if  cir- 
cumstances require  him  to  do  so. 

318 


PRIMARY   COLORS  319 

Yellow,  Red  and  Blue  are  called  the  primaiy  colors,  the 
presence  of  which,  either  pure  or  in  combination,  is  found 
to  be  necessary  to  satisfy  the  eye.  They  have  each  a  differ- 
ent relation  to  light,  and  must  therefore  be  used  in  pro- 
portions which  fulfill  these  conditions.  Any  two  of  these 
primaries  being  mixed,  a  secondary  color  is  produced,  thus 

Blue  and  Yellow  form  Green, 
Blue  and  Red  form  Pui-ple, 
Yellow    and    Red    form   Orange. 

In  like  manner,  by  the  mixture  of  any  two  of  the  sec- 
ondaries, tertiary  colors  are  formed,  thus:  Orange  and 
Green  produce  Citrine,  or  the  set  of  tints  of  a  greenish- 
yellow  character  approximating  to  citron;  Orange  and  Pur- 
ple form  Russet,  or  warm  brown;  whilst  Purple  and  Green 
produce  Olive,  or  dull  brownish  green. 

By  the  varied  and  due  admixture  of  these  colors  an  infinite 
number  of  hues,  shades  and  tints  are  produced,  whilst  by 
an  indefinite  and  disproportionate  mixture  of  the  three 
colors,  or  of  the  whole  together,  will  be  produced  the  hues 
usually  called  dirty,  or  the  anomalous  color,  brown. 

There  are  five  classes  of  colors:  The  neutral,  the  pri- 
mary, the   secondary,  the  tertiary  and  the   semi-neutral. 

Neutral  colors  are  three  only,  White,  Black  and  Gray. 
According  to  the  laws  of  optics,  the  two  first  comprise  all 
others  synthetically  and  afford  them  all  by  analysis.  These 
are  sometimes  called  extreme  colors,  gray  being  their  in- 
termediate. 

Thus,  if  Black  and  White  are  mixed.  Gray  is  formed, 
or  if  a  transparent  Black  is  washed  over  a  white  surface, 
a  corresponding  effect  is  produced. 

Primary  colors  are  three  only.  Yellow,  Red  and  Blue. 
They  are  such  as  yield  others  by  being  compounded,  but 
are  not  themselves  capable  of  being  produced  by  compo- 
Bition  of  other  colors.  By  way  of  distinction  they  are  occa- 
sionally   designated    entire    colors.        Secondary    colors   are 


320  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

three  only,  Orange,  Green  and  Purple.  Each  of  these  is 
composed  of,  and  can  be  resolved  into,  two  primaries;  thus 
Orange  is  composed  of  Red  and  Yellow,  Green  of  Yellow 
and  Blue  and  Purple  of  Blue  and  Red. 

Tertiai-y  colors  are  three  only,  Citrine,  Russet  and  Olive. 
Each  of  these  is  composed  of,  or  can  be  resolved  into,  either 
two  secondary  colors  or  the  three  primaries;  thus  Citrine 
consists  of  Green  and  Orange,  or  of  a  predominant  Yellow 
with  Blue  and  Red;  Russet  is  compounded  of  Orange  and 
Purple,  or  of  a  predominant  Red  with  Blue  and  Yellow, 
and  Olive  is  composed  of  Purple  and  Gxxen,  or  of  a  pre- 
dominant Blue  with  Yellow  and  Red. 

The  last  three  genera  of  colors  comprehend  in  an  orderly 
gradation  all  those  which  are  positive  or  definite,  and  the 
three  colors  of  each  genus,  united  or  compounded  in  such 
subordination  that  neither  of  them  predominates  to  the 
eye,  constitute  the  negative  or  neutral  colors  of  which  black 
and  white  have  been  stated  to  be  the  opposed  extremes,  and 
grays  their  intermediates.  Thus  Black  and  White  are  con- 
stituted of,  and  comprise  latently,  the  principles  of  all  col- 
ors and  accompany  them  in  their  depth  and  brilliancy,  as 
shade  and  light. 

Semi-neutral  colors  belong  to  a  class  of  which  Brown, 
Maroon  and  Gray  may  be  considered  types.  They  are  so 
called  because  they  comprehend  all  the  combinations  of  the 
primary,  secondary  and  tertiary  colors  with  the  neutral 
black.  Of  the  various  combinations  of  black,  those  in  which 
yellow,  orange  or  citrine  predominates  have  obtained  the 
name  of  brown;  a  second  class,  in  which  the  compounds  of 
black  are  of  a  predominant  red,  purple  or  russet  hue,  com- 
prise maroon,  chocolate;  and  a  third  class,  in  which  the 
combinations  of  black  have  a  predominant  hue  of  blue, 
green  or  olive,  include  gray  and  slate. 

It  must  be  observed  that  each  color  may  comprehend  an 
infinite  series  of  shades  between  the  extremes  of  light  and 
dark,   as    each    compound    color   may    eomiirise    a    series    of 


PRIMARY    COLORS  321 

hues  between  the  extremes  of  the  colors  composing  it,  and 
as  the  relations  of  colors  have  been  deduced  regularly  from 
white  or  light  to  black  or  shade,  so  the  same  may  be  done 
inversely  from  black  to  white.  On  this  plan  the  tertiaries, 
Olive,  Russet  and  Citrine,  take  the  place  of  the  primaries. 
Blue,  Red  and  Yellow,  while  the  secondaries  still  retain 
their  intermediate  station  and  relation  to  both. 

Thus,  Russet  and  Olive  compose,  or  unite  in,  dark  Purple, 
Citrine  and  Olive  in  dark  Green,  Russet  and  Citrine  in  dark 
Orange.  The  tertiaries  have  therefore  the  same  order  of 
relation  to  Black  that  the  primaries  have  to  Wliite;  and  we 
have  black  primaries,  secondaries  and  tertiaries  inversely, 
as  we  have  White  primaries,  secondaries  and  tertiaries  di- 
rectly. In  other  words,  we  have  light  and  dark  colors  of 
all  classes. 

It  is  important  to  the  painter  that  he  should  understand 
the  difference  between  hues,  tints  and  shades.  By  mixing 
white  with  the  original  color,  a  tint  is  produced;  by  mix- 
ing color  with  color,  compound  colors  or  hues  are  formed, 
whilst  from  the  mixture  of  colors  or  tints  with  black;  shades 
result. 


PRIMING. 

This  is  the  most  important  paint  coat  applied  to  any  sur- 
face. It  must  fill  and  satisfy  the  surface  and  leave  a  foun- 
dation upon  which  future  paint  coats  can  be  successfully 
built.  It  holds  the  same  relative  position  in  painting  as 
does  the  foundation  of  a  house  in  building.  It  must  last 
and  successfully  hold  the  superstructure  as  long  as  it  re- 
mains. It  must  carry  sufficient  linseed  oil  to  not  onlj-  sat- 
isfy the  surface  but  bind  or  hold  the  pigment  to  the  sur- 
face. It  must  carry  sufficient  turpentine  to  cause  penetra- 
tion and  assist  in  forcing,  by  absorption,  the  oil  and  pig- 
ment into  the  surface.  The  formation  of  the  pigment  must 
be  such  as  to  allow  of  penetration  into  the  surface,  and 
above  all,  the  primer  must  be  well  and  evenly  brushed  out 
and  into  the  surface. 

The  common  idea  that  anyone  can  prime  a  building  is  a 
serious  mistake.  The  priming  coat  offers  the  best  oppor- 
tunity for  judging  a  painter's  work.  If  he  is  a  capable, 
careful  man  he  will  use  as  much  or  more  care  in  applying 
this  coat  as  he  would  in  the  application  of  the  second  or 
third  coat.  He  will  brush  the  paint  into  the  wood,  satisfy- 
ing the  soft  grain,  and  carefully  brush  the  hard  grain 
where  there  is  less  absorption,  leaving  an  even,  uniform 
coating. 

It  is  impossible  to  erect  a  frame  building  and  have  all 
of  the  timber  of  the  same  absorbing  qualities.  The  sap- 
wood  absorbs  paint  more  readily  than  the  heartwood,  which 
is  of  a  harder  grain.  This  fact  does  not  necessitate  a  dif- 
ferent reduction  for  each  kind  of  grain  in  the  same  lumber, 
but  it  does  necessitate  the  jiainter's  properly  applying  and 
brushing  out  the  paint. 

322 


PRIMING  323 

In  priming-  soft  wood,  the  paint  should  be  applied  with 
a  full  brush  and  enough  paint  used  at  all  times  to  satisfy 
the  surface.  It  should  be  well  brushed  and  especially  on 
the  harder  grain  to  assist  or  force  the  paint  into  this  close 
grain  and  remove  by  hard  brushing-  any  surjilus  paint  that 
remains  on  the  surface. 

On  hard  or  close-grained  Avood  a  medium  full  brush 
should  be  used  in  apphdng-  the  paint,  as  this  class  of  wood 
does  not  possess  the  absorbing  proj^erties  of  softer  woods, 
but  requires  more  brushing  in  order  to  force  a  sufficient 
amount  of  oil  and  binder  into  the  wood  and  at  the  same 
time  not  leave  an  excess  of  paint  on  the  surface. 

If  the  priming  coat  is  of  the  proper  consistency,  carry- 
ing sufficient  pigment  to  fill  and  hide  the  grain,  and  well 
brushed  into  the  grain  of  the  wood,  most  of  the  absorption 
will  have  ceased  with  this  coat  and  no  excess  of  pigment 
left  on  the  surface.  This  thin  coat  will  allow  the  second 
coat  to  penetrate  through  and  satisfy  any  part  of  the  wood 
which  was  not  fully  filled  at  the  time  of  priming,  also  allow 
the  second  coat  to  bind  itself  to  the  wood  and  priming 
coat. 

An  excess  of  paint  on  veiy  porous  woods  will  cause  peek- 
ing or  chii^ping.  This  heavy  coat  prevents  the  oil  from 
penetrating  the  woods  and  assists  in  holding  the  coat  on 
the  surface.  The  oil  and  binder  in  the  second  coat  jDene- 
trates  into  this  heavy  coat  only  and  does  not  reach  the  wood 
so  as  to  assist  in  forming  a  solid  coat  well  bound  to  the 
surface. 

Paint  heavily  applied  to  a  hard  or  close  grained  surface 
will  dry  with  a  gloss,  forming  a  hard  glaze  over  the  sur- 
face, into  which  the  second  coat  cannot  penetrate  to  any 
depth;  it  will  only  fasten  itself  to  the  outside  of  this  glaze 
coat,  whereas  it  should  go  through  to  the  wood  so  as  to 
help  strengthen   the   second   and   subsequent   coats. 

Do  not  prime  a  building  and  allow  it  to  stand  any  longer 
than  is  necessary  in  order  to  thoroughly  hq,rden  the  paint 


324  CYCLOPEDIA   OF    PAINTING 

and  allow  of  full  absorption.  If  allowed  to  weather,  the 
priming  coat  will  become  porous  and  absorb  the  life  of  the 
second  coat  and  there  will  not  be  sufficient  binder  left  to 
properly  adhere  to  the  surface. 

Never  use  a  cheap  primer.  While  cheap  in  the  first  cost, 
it  is  without  exception  the  costliest  in  the  end.  The  primer 
should  be  of  the  best  and  of  the  same  material  as  the  in- 
termediate and  finishing  coats. 

Dry  colors  mixed  by  hand  should  never  be  used  for  prim- 
ing. All  paint  pigments  are  much  more  bulky  in  the  dry 
state  than  when  properly  handled  under  pressure  and  com- 
bined with  oil.  When  a  mixture  is  made  without  pressure 
the  outside  particles  of  the  pigment  are  only  coated  Avith 
the  oil  or  thinners,  and  when  applied  to  a  surface,  the 
wood  having  a  greater  attraction  for  the  oil  than  does  the 
pigment,  the  surface  will  absorb  the  oil  from  the  pigment, 
leaving  a  dry,  porous  coating  to  which  subsequent  coats 
cannot  successfully  bind. 


SCENE  PAINTING. 

When  purchasing  any  burlaps  to  paint  the  scenery  on, 
confine  the  selection  to  a  good  article,  which  should  not  be 
too  thick,  and  should  be  of  a  close  texture,  evenly  woven 
and  light.  The  stoutness  should,  however,  be  increased 
for  very  large  scenes  or  drops.  In  place  of  burlaps,  stout 
unbleached  muslin  is  frequently  employed,  but  it  does  not 
by  any  means  answer  so  well. 

With  respect  to  the  width  of  the  canvas,  that  which  is 
manufactured  two  yards  wide  is  the  most  preferable,  as 
the  scene  will  not  require  so  many  seams.  For  ordinary 
sceneiy  these  seams  should  always  run  horizontally,  but 
for  a  moving  panorama  they  must  assume  a  pei'pendieular 
direction,  since  the  canvas  on  which  it  is  represented  has 
to  be  unrolled  from  a  cylinder  placed  vertically  on  the  stage 
at  the  time  of  exhibition. 

These  are  the  most  needful  articles  to  begin  with:  A 
common  iron  or  tin  kettle,  in  shape  resembling  a  fish  kettle, 
to  melt  the  size  in  and  a  ladle  to  pour  it  out  when  required 
for  use;  an  earthenware  pan,  about  fifteen  or  eighteen 
inches  in  diameter,  to  contain  the  whiting  that  has  been 
moistened  and  made  fit  for  use;  about  four  dozen  earthen- 
ware paint  pots,  from  the  smallest  to  the  largest;  a  grind- 
stone and  muller,  or  what  would  do  still  better,  a  gi-inding 
color  mill;  a  large  palette  knife;  a  good  sized  sponge;  a 
plumb  line;  some  chalk  and  a  couple  of  chalk  lines;  some 
common  charcoal,  of  which  only  the  softest  and  finest  pieces 
are  to  be  selected;  some  drawing  charcoal,  the  large  French 
is  the  best ;  a  couple  of  pounce  bags.  These  can  be  made 
in  the  following  manner:  Take  a  piece,  about  eight  inches 
square,  of  very  open  canvas,  of  an  old  stocking,  or  of  any 

325 


326  CYCLOPEDIA    OF   PAINTING 

other  material  that  will  just  allow  the  pounce  powder  to 
pass  freely  through  the  surface  of  the  bag.  Pulverize  some 
charcoal,  chalk,  or  whatever  other  substance  may  be  con- 
sidered best  adapted  to  the  purpose,  to  as  fine  a  powder  as 
possible.  Place  a  sufficient  quantity  of  it  on  the  middle 
part  of  the  canvas.  Then  draw  up  the  four  corners  and 
tie  them  together  with  a  piece  of  string  so  as  to  form  a 
round  pad  which  is  to  be  rubbed  over  the  pounce  to  be 
transferred   to   the   canvas. 

Foils.  These  are  used  chiefly  in  fairy  scenes,  for  the 
purpose  of  imitating  gold,  silver  and  jewels  of  every  shade 
and  color.  They  can  be  purchased  at  any  theatrical  ward- 
robe and  ornament  maker's,  as  well  as  at  oil  and  color 
shops. 

White,  Gold  and  Copper-Colored  Dutch  Metal.  This  is 
also  sold  by  the  above-mentioned  dealers.  It  is,  of  course, 
cheaper,  but  tarnishes  sooner. 

A  couple  of  wooden  palettes,  one  three  feet  by  one  and  a 
half,  the  other  four  feet  by  two,  which  any  carpenter  can 
make.  They  should  have  a  ledge  three  inches  high  at  each 
end,  and  one  at  the  back  to  prevent  the  colors  from  flow- 
ing off.  They  may  be  made  with  a  separate  division  for 
each  color  if  preferred.  Before  making  use  of  the  palettes 
they  must  have  three  or  four  coats  of  white  lead  laid  over 
them  and  afterwards  be  rubbed  down  with  sandpaper  to  get 
them  as  smooth  as  possible. 

A  Flogger,  This  implement  is  employed  for  clearing 
away  the  charcoal  after  the  sketching  in  is  completed.  To 
make  one,  cut  off  a  piece,  about  two  feet  long,  from  a 
broomstick,  and  round  one  end  of  it  nail  about  a  dozen 
strips  of  canvas  or  calico,  each  strip  being  two  feet  in 
length. 

Straight  Edges.  Of  these,  three  or  four  will  be  required, 
one  being  exactly  two  yards  long  and  four  inches  wide  and 
marked  off  in  feet,  to  serve  as  a  measure.  They  should  be 
made  of  thin   deal  and   have  a  flange  at  each  edge.     One 


SCENE   PAINTING  327 

of  them  should  be  thin  and  pliable  enough  to  bear  being 
bent  whenever  drawing  curves  or  arches. 

The  mode  of  proceeding  will  then  be  as  follows:  Grasp 
the  handle  with  the  left  hand  and  press  the  lower  edge  of 
the  straightedge  against  the  canvas,  keeping  the  upper  edge 
away  from  it.  Now,  resting  the  brush  on  the  upper  edge, 
draw  it  along  the  canvas  and  a  line  is  ruled.  It  would  be 
advisable  to  practice  ruling  lines  in  this  way  as  it  will  be 
found  to  jDresent  a  little  difficulty  at  first. 

Brushes.     Of  these  you  will  require : 

Two  each  flat  hog  tools,  Nos.  2,  4,  6,  8,  12  and  24. 

One  each  sash  tools,  Nos.  1  and  12. 

Two  each  sash  tools,  Nos.  2,  4,  6,  8  and  10. 

One  4-inch  flat  camel  hair  brush. 

Two  each  quilled  tools,  Nos.  2,  4  and  6. 

Six  each  quilled   tools,  No.  1. 

Two   9-oz.   ground   distemper   brushes. 

Two  No,  8-0   oval  ground  brushes. 

One   No.   4-0   over  ground  brush. 

One  No.  1  oval  ground  brush. 

One  No.  3  oval  ground  brush. 

COLORS. 

White.  Procure  the  best  gilders'  whiting,  as  it  is  well 
washed  and  has  more  body  than  common  whiting,  and  less 
lime.  It  is  sold  in  large  lumps  and  only  requires  to  be 
broken  up  and  plunged  into  as  much  water  as  will  serve 
to  soften  it  without  bringing  it  into  a  liquid  state.  This 
last  remark  applies  to  all  the  colors  when  they  are  put  into 
the  stock  pots  ready  for  use.  Whiting  is  used  to  mix  with 
almost  all  the  colors,  to  reduce  them,  in  the  same  way  as 
Flake  white  is  used  in  oil  painting  or  as  water  is  used  in 
water   color  drawing. 

Flake  White.  A  fine  white,  very  solid,  but  turns  a  little 
brown   in   distemper,   after  a   short  time.     It  is  only  used 


328  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  PAINTING 

where  extra  brightness  is  required  and  for  the  highest 
lights.  It  is  sokl  in  lumps  and  can  be  crushed  in  water 
with  a  palette  knife  to  be  ready  for  use. 

Zinc  White.  Verj'  white,  but  has  less  body  than  flake 
white,  though  more  permanent.  In  all  other  respects  it  is 
the  same  and  is  prepared  in  the  same  way  for  use. 

Lemon  Chrome.  A  brilliant  light  yellow,  sold  in  lumps, 
and   only  requires   to  be  crushed   as  above. 

Orange  Chrome.  A  fine  rich  bright  color,  in  all  respects 
of  the  same  nature  as  the  other  chrome. 

Dutch  Pink.  A  most  useful  yellow  for  distemper  paint- 
ing and  mixes  well  with  any  other  color.  It  is  sold  in 
lumps,  but  must  be  ground  in  water  to  be  ready  for  use. 

Light  Yellow  Ochre.  This  is  a  very  useful  and  cheap 
color.  It  is  sold  in  a  powdered  state  and  only  requires  to 
be  plunged  into  water  to  be  ready  for  use. 

Dark  Brown  Ochre.  Of  the  same  nature  as  the  above  and 
prepared  for  use  in  the  same  way;  unfortunately,  it  is  vei'y 
sandy. 

Raw  Sienna.  A  fine  rich  golden  yellow,  for  glazing, 
chiefly;  sold  in  broken  lumps,  very  hard,  and  requires  most 
careful  grinding  in  water  to  be  readj-  for  use.  As  grinding 
shall  be  often  spoken  of  let  it  be  understood  that  it  is  al- 
ways in  Avater. 

Orange  Lead.  A  very  bright  and  powerful  red,  sold  in 
powder;  requires  only  to  be  plunged  in  water  to  be  ready 
for  use. 

Vermilion.  A  fine  red,  sold  in  powder,  and  only  requires 
to  be  plunged  in  water. 

Indian  Red.  A  good  color,  also  sold  in  powder,  and  pre- 
})are(l   in   the  same  way  for  use. 

Venetian  Red.  A  very  cheap  and  useful  color-,  also  in 
powdei",  and  prepared  in   the  same  Avay  for  use. 

Damp  Lake.  A  useful  color  in  distemper.  It  is  sold  in 
a  damp,  pulpy  state  and  only  requires  to  be  kept  damp  for 
use.     It  is  a  fine  glazing  color. 


SCENE  PAINTING  329 

Carmine  Paste.  A  magnificent  color,  has  great  power, 
and  is  a  fine  glazing  color.  This,  also,  only  requires  to  be 
kept  damp,  as  it  is  sold  ready  for  use.  It  need  not  be  put 
on  the  palette  till  required. 

Rose  Pink.  A  useful  color,  sold  in  soft  lumps,  but  re- 
quires grinding  for  use. 

Brown   Lake.     A  good  color,  requires  grinding. 

Burnt  Sienna.  A  fine  color,  requires  most  careful  grind- 
ing.    This  is   a  good  glazing  color. 

Vandyke  Brown.  A  fine  useful  color,  is  a  good  glazing 
one,  requires  most   careful  grinding. 

Raw  Umber.     A   useful   color,  requires  grinding. 

Burnt  Umber.  A  good  color,  requires  grinding,  and  is 
a  good  glazing  color. 

Drop  Black.     A  very  useful  color,  requires  gi-inding. 

Blue  Black.     Is  also  useful,   requires  grinding. 

Indigo.  A  very  useful  color,  very  hard,  requires  to  be 
broken  up  and  steeped  in  boiling  water  for  some  time,  then 
ground  up  in  the  usual  way.     A  good  glazing  color. 

German  Ultramarine.  A  good  blue,  sold  in  powder,  and 
only  requires  to  be  plunged  in  water. 

Prussian  Blue.  A  powerful  blue,  hitherto  scarcely  used 
in  distemper,  but  likely  to  be  of  much  use.  Requires  good 
grinding. 

Azure  Blue.  A  fine,  useful  blue,  better  than  Gennan  ul- 
tramarine for  most  purposes.  A  powder  color  and  has  only 
to  be  plunged  in  water. 

Blue  Verditer.  A  fine  night  color,  but  of  a  sandy  nature, 
and  very  difficult  to  work  with.  A  powder  color  and  re- 
quires only  water  put  to  it  for  use. 

Dark  Green  Lake.  A  most  powerful  green  and  vei-y  use- 
ful.    Requires  grinding  for  use. 

Light  Green  Lake.  The  same  as  the  above,  only  much 
lighter. 

Emerald  Green.  A  very  bright  green  and  should  be  spar- 
ingly used.     Requires  no  grinding,  as  it  is  in  powder. 


330  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  PAINTING 

MIXING  COLORS. 

The  most  difficult  feature  of  painting:  in  distemper  is 
that  the  colors  dry  so  much  lighter  than  they  are  when 
first  put  on,  and  many  of  them  have,  by  gaslight,  an  en- 
tirely different  appearance  than  they  have  in  the  daytime. 
Most  colors  dry  sevei-al  shades  lighter  than  they  are  when 
wet,  and,  worse  still,  they  do  not  all  diy  lighter  in  the 
same  proportion,  so  that  any  person  new  to  the  Avork  can- 
not estimate  the  particular  shade  of  his  paint  when  first 
laid  on.  It  is,  therefore,  advisable  for  the  painter  to  try 
his  colors  on  a  small  scale  at  first,  and  dry  them  in  front 
of  the  fire. 

To  render  the  colors  opaque,  a  certain  proportion  of 
whiting  or  flake  white  is  always  mixed  with  them,  accord- 
ing to  the  shade  desired.  Transparent  and  glazing  colors 
being  an  exception  to  this  rule,  no  whiting  is  used  Avith 
Ihem.  The  strength  of  the  size  also  makes  a  vast  differ- 
ence; very  strong  size  darkens.  As  to  the  appearance  of 
colors  at  night:  French  ultramarine,  a  bright  blue  by  day- 
light, is  a  muddy  purple  by  gaslight,  and  thcFcfore  unfit  for 
distant  tints  or  for  brightness.  Verditer  blue,  cobalt  blue, 
celestial  blue  are  best.  Yellow  is  much  lighter  by  gaslight, 
and  rose  pink  loses  its  brightness.  The  colors  being  all 
mixed  with  water  to  a  pulpy  state  are  now  put  into  the 
compartments  on  the  palette,  putting  no  more  on  the  palette 
than  is  required  for  immediate  use.  In  scene  painting  many 
of  the  different  shades  are  only  obtained  by  mixing  one 
color  with  the  other  while  on  the  palette.  The  way  to  do 
this  is  as  follows:  Suppose  a  purple  is  wanted,  the  painter 
would  take  up  a  clean  brush  and  dip  it  in  the  size-can;  he 
would  then  transfer  it  quickly  to  the  compartment  on  the 
palette  containing  the  rose  pink,  and  having  got  a  good  brush- 
ful  of  his  color,  would  spread  it  on  the  palette;  he  would  then 
dip  the  brush  in  the  ultramarine  and  mix  this  also  with 
the  rose  pink,  and  to  get  it  a  shade  or  two  lighter  he  would 


SCENE   PAINTING  331 

dip  the  brush  in  the  whiting  pan.  Tints  composed  of  three 
or  four  colors  can  be  rapidly  compounded  in  this  way,  add- 
ing moi'e  size  as  often  as  required  to  render  them  work- 
able. Where  a  lot  of  color  is  required,  as  for  skies,  the 
colors  are  mixed  in  pots,  and  to  get  the  various  tints  the 
painter  dijDs  his  brush  first  in  one  pot  and  then  in  another, 
and  in  this  way  i^uts  in  a  sky  of  jDcrhaps  a  dozen  different 
hues. 

For  foliage,  a  quiet  general  tint  may  be  obtained  by  mix- 
ing Dutch  pink  with  black,  indigo  with  blue  verditer.  Light 
ochre  with  green  lake  gives  a  rich  green,  which  may  be 
changed  to  a  cool  one  by  the  addition  of  indigo.  For  sun- 
set skies  mix  in  separate  pots  the  following:  verditer  and 
indigo;  verditer  and  damp  lake;  damp  lake  and  orange 
chrome.  For  clouds,  mix  verditer  and  orange  red,  or  Vene- 
tian red  and  azure  blue;  rose  pink  and  azure  blue.  For 
cold  gray  clouds  add  a  little  black.  For  lights  in  clouds, 
mix  yellow  ochre  and  rose  pink,  or  yellow  ochre  and  orange 
red.  For  distant  foliage  mix  verditer  and  rose  pink,  or  use 
Dutch  pink  alone.  For  the  sea,  Dutch  pink,  verditer,  in- 
digo, raw  sienna,  azure  blue  and  emerald  green  will  be 
found  most  useful.  For  rocks  some  of  the  following  tints 
will  be  useful :  indigo,  burnt  sienna  and  rose  pink — emer- 
ald green  and  black — Vandyke  brown  and  ultramarine — 
indigo,  rose  pink  and  ochre.  Black  and  Venetian  red  make 
a  useful  gra}'.  For  gold  colors  mix  brown  ochre  and  Dutch 
pink,  or  Dutch  pink  and  sienna  or  Vandyke  brown,  these 
for  laying  in.  For  the  lights  use  flake  white  and  lemon 
chrome,  orange  and  yellow  chrome,  chrome  and  Dutch  pink. 
Purple  and  mauve  look  fresh  by  day,  but  are  dirty  and 
muddy  by  gaslight.  For  moonlight  skies  a  good  tint  is  ver- 
diter and  indigo  mixed.  For  clouds  add  black  and  more  in- 
digo. Water  is  genei'ally  the  color  of  the  sky  and  the  ob- 
jects that  are  reflected  therein,  such  as  trees,  banks  and 
rushes.  For  branches  and  trunks  of  trees,  use  indigo,  lake 
and    yellow    ochre — burnt    sienna    and    ultramarine — Dutch 


332  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

pink,  burnt  sienna  and  indigo.  For  grass,  use  pure  greens, 
mixing  more  or  less  j'ellow  chrome  for  high  lights.  In 
painting  dead  leaves  use  chrome  and  burnt  sienna.  For 
stone  buildings,  mix  yellow  ochre,  umber  and  indigo,  or 
ochre,  celestial  blue  and  red.  For  bricks,  Venetian  red, 
and  for  shadows  add  ultramarine.  Where  fire  is  reflected 
use  orange  lead. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  in  mixing  tints,  for  some 
colors  like  Prussian  blue  are  so  strong  that  a  very  little 
will  suffice,  so  if  used  without  due  thought  it  becomes  nec- 
essary to  add  more  of  the  other  colors. 

Some  painters  mix  molasses  or  golden  syrup  with  their 
size,  which  makes  the  colors  work  more  freel}'.  In  paint- 
ing a  scene  on  a  new  cloth  the  first  thing  to  be  done,  after 
the  canvas  is  strained, .  is  to  size  it  all  over.  This  is  done 
with  strong  size,  size  melted  in  a  kettle  with  just  water 
enough  to  prevent  burning. 

MEDIUM   FOR    BINDING   DISTEMPER    COLORS. 

Size  is  sold  in  firkins  or  by  weight.  Tliat  called  best 
double  is  to  be  preferred  and  when  melted  must  be  mixed 
with  water  in  the  proportion  of  one  pint  of  size  to  four 
pints  of  water  to  make  what  is  called  working  size.  An- 
other called  strong  size,  for  sizing  and  priming  a  cloth  or 
any  piece  covered  with  canvas,  may  be  made  by  drop- 
ping the  size,  exactly  as  it  comes  from  the  shop,  into  a 
size  kettle  in  which  there  is  just  sufficient  water  to  pre- 
vent the  size  adhering  to  the  bottom  of  the  kettle.  The 
size  is  read}'  for  using  as  soon  as  it  is  completely  melted, 
without  having  been  allowed  to  boil.  Use  is  frequently 
made  of  what  is  called  half-and-lialf  size,  a  mixture  of 
working  size  and  strong  size  in  equal  quantities. 

Should  the  painter  be  unable  to  procure  manufactured 
size,  the  best  carpenters'  glue  is  a  good  substitute  for  it. 
This  can  be  obtained  almost  anywhere,  and,  in  an  unmelted 


SCENE  PAINTING  333 

state,  will  keep  good  in  all  climates.  It  can  be  melted  in 
a  carpenter's  glue  pot  in  the  usual  way  and  then  weakened 
with  water  till  it  is  of  the  consistence  required.  The  quan- 
tity of  water  will  depend  on  the  strength  of  the  glue,  which 
varies  considerably,  but,  in  any  ease,  keep  on  adding  as 
much  water  as  will  allow  the  glue  size  to  set  in  the  form 
of  a  firm  jelly  when  cold,  and  if  to  one  part  of  this  there 
are  added  four  of  water,  the  result  will  be  working  size. 
Half-and-half  can  be  made  as  before. 

In  moderately  cool  weather  working  size  should  assume 
the  condition  of  a  weak  jelly  when  perfectly  cold.  Test 
the  strength  of  it  without  waiting  for  it  to  cool,  by  the  fol- 
lowing means :  Thin  the  strong  size  with  water  till  about 
the  right  consistency.  Then,  after  dipping  your  fingers 
into  it,  put  them  together  a  little  while;  if,  on  endeavor- 
ing to  separate  them  they  adhere  ever  so  little,  the  size  is 
properly  made,  but  if  they  stick  together  quickly  and  rather 
firmly,  it  is  too  strong  and  wants  weakening.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  fingers  separate  quite  freely,  the  size  re- 
quires to  be  made  stronger.  This  method  of  testing  the 
strength  of  the  working  size  is  worth  attending  to  as  well 
as  practicing;  for  if  use  is  made  of  size  that  is  too  strong, 
your  work  will  have  a  shiny  appearance  and  the  effect  will 
be  spoiled,  while  the  colors  would  soon  wear  off  if  the  size 
has  been  made  too  weak. 

But  should  even  carpenters'  glue  be  unprocurable  or  not 
at  hand  when  required,  use  leather  or  parchment  cuttings, 
pieces  of  skin  of  any  kind,  or,  in  short,  of  any  gelatinous 
substance  that  has  no  grease  in  it.  Put  them  with  water 
into  any  metal  vessel  and  let  them  simmer  till  they  are 
converted  into  a  strong  jelly,  from  which  can  be  produced 
the  same  descriptions  of  size  as  those  already  alluded  to. 

As  size  does  not  keep  well  during  the  hot  weather,  when 
it  gives  off  a  very  offensive  odor,  do  not  make  more  then 
than  will  suffice  for  the  day's  work.  A  little  carbolic  acid, 
however,   mixed   with    the   size   will   prevent   its   decomposi- 


334  CYCLOPEDIA   OP    PAINTING 

tion.  The  mixed  colors,  likewise,  will  probably  deteriorate 
before  the  scene  is  finished,  should  the  weather  be  hot.  In 
that  case,  if  the  color  sinks  to  the  bottom  of  the  mixture, 
the  size  will  float  on  the  top.  Pour  this  out  and  replace 
it   with  fresh  size. 

TO  PREPARE  THE  CANVAS. 

If  the  dimensions  of  the  canvas  do  not  exceed  that  of  the 
frame,  strain  it  and  nail  it  on  with  iy2  or  2-inch  clout 
nails,  about  four  inches  apart  from  each  other,  taking  care 
that  the  thx'eads  of  the  canvas  have  perpendicular  and  hori- 
zontal directions.  The  nails  should  only  be  driven  home 
about  halfway,  as,  Avhen  the  painting  is  finished,  they  will 
all  have  to  be  taken  out  again  in  order  to  remove  the  can- 
vas from  the  frame.  Having  thus  strained  and  fastened 
the  canvas  so  as  to  get  it  to  lie  tolerably  smooth  on  the 
frame,  apply  the  size  to  it  as  afterwards  directed  and  the 
whole  will  be  stretched  as  tight  as  a  drum-head. 

But  suppose  the  canvas  is  too  large  to  allow  the  frame 
to  take  in  the  whole  height  of  the  scene,  which  frequently 
happens  even  in  regular  painting  rooms,  resort  must  be  had 
to  what  is  called  a  bight  in  the  canvas  and  pi'oceed  thus: 
Nail  the  top  of  the  canvas  along  a  straight  line  drawn  on 
the  top  of  the  frame,  and  let  the  remainder  lie  evenly  down 
the  front,  dropping  the  portion  of  the  canvas  that  extends 
beyond  the  bottom  of  the  frame  through  the  cut,  if  there 
be  one,  or  gathering  it  up  carefully  below.  Now  drive  a 
nail  through  the  end  of  a  seam  that  is  about  halfway  be- 
tween the  top  and  bottom  of  the  frame,  after  having  pulled 
it  slightly  downwards,  keeping  the  side  edge  of  the  canvas 
even  with  the  side  of  the  frame.  Then  measure  how  far 
the  nail  last  drove  in  is  from  the  top  or  bottom  of  the 
frame,  and  nail  the  other  end  of  the  scam  to  the  other 
side  of  the  frame  at  the  same  relative  distance.  Next 
stretch  a  chalk  line  from  one  nail  to  the  other  and  make  it 


SCENE   PAINTING  335 

fast.  This  will  furnish  a  horizontal  line,  parallel,  of  course, 
to  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  frame.  Now  give  a  downward 
pull  to  the  middle  part  of  the  canvas  at  the  bottom  of  the 
frame  till  the  seam  before  spoken  of  is  level  with  the  chalk 
line  at  the  center  and  fasten  it  to  the  frame  with  a  clout 
nail.  In  the  same  way  pull  and  fasten  the  canvas  at  each 
side  of  the  above  point,  at  intervals  of  four  inches,  till  the 
corners  are  reached,  when  the  line  in  which  the  seam  is 
ought  to  coincide  with  that  shown  by  the  chalk  line.  In 
doing  this  be  careful  not  to  pull  the  canvas  sideways,  but 
quite  perpendicularly  and  so  that  no  wrinkles  should  form. 
Strain  out  and  nail  down  the  sides,  pulling  them  in  a  hori- 
zontal direction  and  not  harder  than  is  necessary  to  make 
the  canvas  lie  tolerably  flat.  The  work  being  thus  far  satis- 
factorily' accomplished,  remove  the  chalk  line  and  com- 
mence sizing  as  follows:  Heat  some  of  the  strong  size 
before  described,  and  with  a  two-knot  brush  apply  it  to 
the  canvas,  commencing  at  the  top  of  the  frame  and  work- 
ing crosswise  from  one  side  to  the  other  to  the  depth  of 
about  two  feet.  Keep  the  canvas  tolerably  well  soaked 
with  the  size,  and  let  no  part  remain  uncovered,  except  about 
six  inches  above  where  the  bottom  row  of  nails  are  driven, 
so  that  the  marks  caused  by  the  latter  may  be  afterwards 
got  rid  of.  Continue  thus  till  the  whole  surface  of  the  can- 
vas is  covered  up  to  about  six  inches  from  the  bottom  nails. 
When  all  the  size  that  has  been  applied  to  the  canvas  is 
perfectly  dry,  proceed  with  the  priming.  The  priming  is 
made  in  the  following  manner:  Take  as  much  of  the  whit- 
ing that  has  been  soaked  in  water  as  will  suffice  to  cover 
the  whole  surface  of  the  canvas,  taking  care  that  it  is 
thoroughly  dissolved  and  free  from  lumps.  Drain  the  water 
well  from  it  and  mix  it  with  strong  size  only.  The  priming 
should  now  be  of  such  a  consistency  that  when  a  brush  full 
of  it  is  drawn  against  the  side  of  the  pot  or  pail  which  con- 
tains it,  it  will  run  down  and  as  much  remain  on  the  side 
as  will  leave  no  part  uncovered.     The  priming  should  also 


336  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  PAINTING 

flow  freely  from  the  brush,  but  yet  have  euough  body  in 
it  to  impart,  when  dry,  a  nice  even  white  surface  to  the 
canvas. 

In  laying  in  the  priming,  the  flat  of  the  brush,  not  the 
edge,  should  fii'st  be  moved  up  and  down  the  canvas  with 
as  long  a  stretch  as  possible,  then  horizontally,  and  after- 
wards perpendicularly  again.  Repeat  these  actions  till  the 
canvas  is  well  covered,  finishing  off  horizontally.  Begin 
at  the  top,  and  the  splashes  will  become  smoothened  as  you 
proceed  downwards  with  the  priming.  Be  very  careful  to 
well  cover  the  canvas,  for  it  is  most  vexatious  to  have  to 
touch  up  those  places  that  have  been  left  bare  or  not  suffi- 
ciently covered,  and  the  surface  never  looks  so  clear,  or  is 
so  fit  to  work  on  as  when  all  the  priming  is  done  whilst 
wet.  The  same  precaution,  also,  must  be  taken  in  the 
priming  as  in  the  sizing,  namely,  not  to  prime  nearer  than 
six  inches  from  the  bottom  row  of  nails. 

As  soon  as  the  priming  is  quite  dry,  proceed  to  take  in 
the  bight  before  spoken  of  which  is  done  in  the  following 
manner:  Suj^pose,  for  example,  that  the  canvas  is  eight 
feet  deeper  than  the  frame.  At  the  distance  of  three 
inches  from  the  top,  which  must  be  allowed  for  the  row 
of  nails,  measure  eight  feet  downwards  on  each  side  of  the 
frame,  and  there  strike  a  line  across  with  charcoal.  Then, 
with  a  pair  of  carpenter's  pincers,  draw  out  all  the  nails 
except  those  in  the  top  row.  Now  let  an  assistant  take 
hold  of  the  canvas  at  one  end  of  line  just  struck,  and  one 
or  two  other  assistants,  according  to  the  width  of  the  can- 
vas, are  holding  the  parts  that  are  between.  Let  all  then 
pinch  the  canvas  along  the  struck  line  into  a  straight  fold, 
and  afterwards  lift  that  part  simultaneously  till  it  is  just 
under  the  top  row  of  nails,  being  careful  that  the  canvas 
which  is  folding  itself  at  the  back  is  made  to  lie  evenly, 
and  with  as  few  creases  as  possible.  If  the  lifting  has 
been  properly  performed,  the  canvas  vrill  not  have  shifted, 
either  to  the  right  or  to  the  left,  and   will  hang  tolerably 


SCENE   PAINTING  337 

even.  Next  drive  a  clout  nail  a  little  below  and  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  fold,  and  then  other  ones  on  each  side,  at  intervals 
of  four  inches,  as  before,  some  one  else  helping  you  to 
keep  the  fold  even  and  parallel  to  the  top  line  of  clouts 
while  the  tacking  is  being  carried  on.  All  that  remains  to 
b?  done  is  to  tack  down  the  two  sides,  straining  out  from 
the  center  towards  each  side.  If  there  be  a  seam  in  the 
part  of  the  canvas  just  lifted  up,  get  it  horizontal  by  means 
of  the  chalk  line  and  nails,  as  before  explained,  which  would 
also  serve  to  regulate  the  tacking  at  the  bottom.  Now  size 
and  prime  the  new  surface  in  the  same  manner  as  before, 
using  the  size  and  priming  hot,  and  the  whole  of  the  canvas 
will   present  a  imiform  appearance. 


SIGN  PAINTING. 

Before  giving  some  specimens  of  letters  especially  adapt- 
ed for  sign  Avriting,  it  should  be  impressed  on  the  sign- 
painter  that  all  eccentricity  in  the  forms  of  the  letters  is 
for  the  purpose  quite  out  of  place  on  inscriptions  over  a 
store  or  on  a  wall,  and  in  the  situations  where  his  work 
is  called  into  requisition,  however  much  the  purposes  of 
posters  and  placards  are  supposed  to  be  assisted  there;  in 
the  latter  case  the  object  is  to  catch  the  eye  of  the  passer- 
by, in  spite  of  the  numerous  other  announcements  by  which 
each  may  be  surrounded.  The  question  in  that  ease,  be- 
comes how  to  make  one  more  striking  than  the  other,  and 
in  this  some  of  the  placards  succeed  admirably.  It  is  in 
fact  impossible  to  speak  too  highly  of  the  progress  made 
in  this  respect  by  wood-letter  cutters,  some  of  whose  works 
may  truly  be  taken  as  models  by  the  sign-painter.  The 
test  of  beauty  is  fitness,  and  as  the  inscription  of  the  name 
and  trade  of  a  storekeeper  is  not  likely  to  be  eclipsed  by 
another  inscription  close  to  it,  that  the  very  architectural 
members  serve  as  a  separation,  or,  as  it  were,  a  framing, 
and  that  therefore  no  expedient  is  necessary  to  protect  the 
words  from  being  confused  by  the  proximity  or  brilliancy 
of  another  inscription,  but  that  simplicity,  boldness  and 
clearness  are  the  great  conditions  to  be  fulfilled  by  the 
sign-painter. 

The  characters  shown  in  Fig.  65  have  been  called  Sans- 
serif,  Celtic  and  Grotesque,  and  are  well  adapted  for  situa- 
tions when,  owing  to  distance  or  other  circumstances,  fine 
lines  and  minute  details  would  be  out  of  place,  or  would 
diminish  the  boldness  of  the  inscription.  In  Fig.  65  the 
character  is  given  in  its  heaviest  fonn,  such  as  would  be 

338 


SIGN   PAINTING 


339 


used  high  up  on  a  wall,  and  where  there  is  plenty  of  space 
at  the  disposal  of  the  painter.  This  character  does  not  ad- 
mit of  shadows  or  thickness,  as  it  is  in  itself  so  solid  that 
any  addition  to  its  form  renders  it  clumsy. 

For  situations  nearer  the  eye,  Fig.  66  is  given,  in  which 
the  letters  are  thinner  and  the  general  foi-m  more  open.    The 

MART 

Fig.  65. 

form  is  thus  rendered  altogether  more  elegant  and  may  be 
either  used  plain,  or  with  thickness  and  shading.  The  let- 
ters require  great  care  in  outlining,  so  that  all  the  lines 
may  be  kept  of  the  same  thickness,  and  that  the  same  char- 
acter  may   be   preserved    throughout. 

The  character  shown  in  the  last  examiDle  is  well  adapted 
for    situations    where    the    inscription    is    only    of   moderate 

MAPS 

Fig.  66. 

length,  compared  with  the  space  at  the  disposal  of  the 
painter.  Fig.  67,  however,  shows  how  the  letters  given  in 
Fig.  66  may  be  narrowed,  or,  as  it  is  termed,  elongated,  so 
as  to  get  a  long  inscription  into  a  moderate  space,  and  the 
sans-serif  letter  is  better  adapted  than  any  other  for  this 
purpose,  being,  as  it  were,  self-contained,  that  is,  having 


340 


CYCLOPEDIA   OP'   PAINTING 


no  serifs  or  projecting  ends  to  take  up  space.  The  above 
is  not  by  any  means  the  narrowest  letter  of  the  kind,  but 
will  serve  as  an  indication  of  the  style. 

Fig.  68  shows  the  character  given  in  Fig.  67  in  a  lighter 

MUEK 

Fig.   67. 

form,  and  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most  elegant  letters  of  the 
kind.  It  may  be  used  plain,  or  with  the  addition  of  thick- 
ness and  shading. 

In   Fig.   69  is  given  the   Roman   character,   the  most  ele- 
gant of  all  those  in  use,  and  requiring  the  greatest  care  in 

PLATE 

Fig.    68. 

outlining.  It  is  not  well  fitted  for  distant  situations,  for 
as  such  a  large  proportion  of  the  lines  are  fine,  the  whole 
of  the  letter  does  not  strike  the  eye  equally,  nor  is  it,  when 
the  fine  lines  are  properly  rendered,  well  adapted  for  shad- 
ing or  for  raising  by  means  of  thickness;  it  will,  of  course. 


SIGN   PAINTING  341 

be  supposed  that  the  whole  letter  would  be  made  of  the 
same  thickness  of  wood,  then  the  representation  of  this 
would,  in  the  ease  of  the  fine  lines,  be  broader  than  the 
lines   themselves,   which  would   seem,  as  it  were,   the   edges 

MODES 

Fig.    69. 

of  the  wood  of  which  the  letter  is  composed,  instead  of  the 
surface. 

As  this  character  is  often  used  for  notices  and  other  simi- 
lar inscriptions,  in  Fig.  70  is  given  a  specimen  of  the  lower 

repairing 

Fig.   70. 

case.  Experienced  sign-painters  adopt  two-thirds  of  the 
height  of  the  capitals  as  the  height  of  the  small  letters, 
and  this  is  an  admirable  proportion.  Any  one  who  Avill 
take   the   trouble   to   look,   will   observe   that   wherever  the 

MERCER 

Fig.    71. 

capitals  tower  above  the  other  letters  in  an  undue  propor- 
tion, the  general  forms  and  workmanship  will  indicate  that 
the  inscription  is  the  handiwork  of  a  second-rate  artist.  In 
types,  the  above  character  is  called  Canon,  and  in  Fig.  71 


342 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 


examples  are  given  of  the  character  called  Aldine,  a  very 
refined  letter  of  a  narrower  character  than  the  other;  these 
are  both  adapted  for  situations  where  a  rather  long  in- 
scription has  to  be  got  in,  but,  although  the  last  looks  well 
in  print,  it  is  not  adapted  for  letter  painting,  in  which 
characters  narrower  than  those  in  Fig.  69  should  not  be 
used. 

DRAPER 

Fig.    72. 

Fig.  72  is  an  example  of  a  letter  now  very  much  used, 
under  the  name  of  Runic,  but  it  would  be  difficult  to  de- 
fend the  appellation,  considering  that  it  differs  in  every 
particular  from  the  truly  Runic  characters,  but  in  the  mul- 
tiplicity of  letters  it  had  become  necessary  to  give  some 
designation  to  this  style,  and  on  the  principle  that  a  rose 
by  any  other  name  would  smell  as  sweet,  the  title  by  wliich 
this  character  is  known  has  been  bestowed  upon  it. 

Runic  letters  possess  much  of  the  lightness  and  elegance 

HAT 

Fig.    73. 

of  the  Roman,  whilst  at  the  same  time,  owing  to  the  greater 
equalization  of  the  thickness  of  the  lines,  they  are  bolder, 
and  may  be  used  with  both  thickness  and  shading,  whilst 
the  thickening  of  the  fine  lines  is  gradually  lost  in  a  point- 
ed termination  of  the  sei-ifs. 


SIGN  PAINTING  343 

Following  up  the  system  of  thickening  the  fine  lines  of 
the  Roman  characters,  a  letter  called  the  Clarendon,  Fig. 
73,  has  been  introduced.  It  is  an  exceedingly  handsome 
and  dignified  letter,  and  is,  as  far  as  general  proportions 
are  concerned,  similar  in  every  respect  to  the  Roman.  It 
is  outlined  by  ruling  two  horizontal  lines  at  bottom  and 
two  at  to]),  to  regulate  the  thickness  of  the  serifs  or  feet, 
and  these  may  be  made  to  project  more  or  less,  according 
to  the  space  at  disfjosal,  the  example  presenting  the  maxi- 
mum in   this   respect. 

In  this,  as  in  the  Roman  character,  the  vertical  are 
merged  into  the  horizontal  lines  by  curves  at  the  angles, 
and  the  sign-painter  should  beware  of  exaggeration  in  this 

CASE 

Fig.    74. 

particular.  The  perpendicularity  of  the  one  line,  and  the 
horizontality  of  the  other,  must  not  in  any  way  be  inter- 
fered with;  in  the  sketch  they  should,  in  fact,  meet  and 
form  a  right  angle,  which  should  just  be  rounded  off.  Even 
in  this  particulai',  the  work  of  a  first-rate  sign-painter  is 
evident,  for  in  inferior  work  the  curve  is  often  begun  from 
the  very  beginning  of  the  serif  of  the  letter  to  hide  the 
failure  in  the  horizontality  of  the  line.  The  painter  may  in 
this,  as  in  other  departments  of  work,  be  assured  that  it 
is  in  the  refinement  of  points  such  as  these  where  the 
skilled  artisan,  possibly  only  another  name  for  the  artist, 
is  distinguished  from  the  common  handicraftsman. 

Fig.  74  is  another  specimen  of  Clarendon  in  a  condensed 
form,  and   nan-ower  than  this,  the   letter  should  never  be 


344  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

used,  as  the  beauty  of  the  character  is  lost  when  the  space 
forbids  the  proper  extension  of  the  feet  of  the  letters. 

We  would  suggest  to  the  letter  painter  the  use  of  the 
Clarendon  character  in  notice-boards,  Fig.  75,  where  it  is 
bolder  than  the  Roman,  and  is  perhaps  more  rapidly  exe- 
cuted, as  the  thin  lines  do  not  require  so  much  care  as  do 
the  fine  lines  in  the  Roman. 

Next    in    solidity    to   the    Clarendon    is   the    Egyptian,    or, 

This  Desirable 

RESIDENCE 

to  be  Let> 

For  particulars 
apply  to 

Fig.    75. 

as  it  is  by  some  painters  and  jDrinters  called,  the  Antique. 
It  is  scarcelj'  Avorth  while  asking  which  is  the  more  correct 
name,  as  neither  of  them  is  in  the  slightest  degree  jus- 
tifiable. The  nr.mes  seem  to  have  arisen  from  the  letters 
appearing  as  if  made  uji  of  l)l()cks,  Iiavin^  thus  some  simil- 
itude to  the  massive  Egyptian  buildings. 

The  letter  is  a  most  useful  one,  the  boldest  there  is,  and 
is  especially  adapted  for  being  rendered  with  thickness  and 
shading.     It  differs   from  Clarendon   in   being  heavier,  and 


SIGN  PAINTING  345 

in  its  angles  being  accurately  rendered,  without  being 
rounded  off  as  in  the  Clarendon.  When  Egyptian  letters  are 
painted  on  a  very  large  scale  all  the  lines  may  be  made  of 
the  same  thickness;  the  letters  then  have  a  very  striking 
effect.  When  of  a  medium  or  small  size,  the  down  strokes 
should   be   rather   thicker   than   the   others. 

DENT 

Fig.    76. 

Fig.  77  is  an  example  of  condensed  Egyptian,  and  nar- 
rower than  this  the  letter  should  not  be  used,  for  if  the 
space  be  so  limited  that  such  a  narrow  letter  is  required  a 
sans-serif  may  be  used,  and  as  that  character  has  no  pro- 
jecting feet  it  will  allow  of  a  wider  letter  being  employed. 

The  characteristic  features  of  what  mav  be  called  the 
three  great  orders  of  plain  letters  have  been  given,  and  all 

HOUSE 

Fig.    77. 

who  would  excel  in  letter  painting  should  study  and  prac- 
tice these  until  they  become  quite  proficient  in  them,  since 
all  the  ornamental  letters  should  be  based  upon  them,  the 
general  forms  being  the  same,  the  difference  consisting  only 
in  the  lines  being  curved  or  in  the  addition  of  ornamenta- 
tion. 


346 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 


Fig.  78  is  called  Classic.  It  is  a  very  useful  character, 
elegant  in  its  simplicitj'.  The  letters  should  be  sketched 
and  spaced  as  for  Clarendon,  the  difference  consisting  mere- 
ly in  the  serifs  turning  round  into  scrolls.  The  effect  of 
this  letter,  when  jDainted  in  black  on  glass  with  a  diapei'ed 
gold  background,  is  very  good.  The  addition  of  thickness 
and    shading    to    this    character,    owing    to    the    amount    of 

WINE 

Fig.   VS. 

draAving  required,  is  a  work  of  some  difficulty  and  time, 
whilst  the  appearance  is  not   thereby  improved. 

The  character  shown  in  Fig.  79  goes  by  the  name  of 
Tuscan,  but  it  is,  as  it  were,  an  ornamental  rendering  of 
the  Egyptian,  within  the  outline  of  which  it  may  very  well 
be  sketched.     The  letter  is  given  as  usually  drawn. 

This  letter  may  be  shaded,  or  rendered  with  thickness. 


Fig-.    79. 

Fig.  80  shows  another  letter  called  open  Tuscan.  An 
inscription  in  this  charactoi-  in  a  light  color  on  a  dark 
ground  with  a  darker  line  on  the  right  and  under  side,  and 
the  pattern  on  the  letter  in  a  ))right  color,  comes  out,  to. 
use  a  technical  phrase,  very  well.  The  main  beauty  of  the 
letter,  however,  consists  in  the  correctness  of  its  form,  and 
its  rather  angular  character,  and  if  these  points  are  not 
observed,   the  painter  may  depend   that   all   his  colors,  how- 


SIGK  PAINTING 


347 


ever  brilliant,  and  ail  bis  gilding,  bowever  well  done,  will 
be  thrown  avvay  or  will  serve  to  show  only  tbe  more  plainly 
the  defects  in  tbe  form. 

Wbicb  to  admire  tbe  most,  tbe  beauty  of  tbe  letter  sbown 
in  Fig.  81,  or  tbe  plain  sense  of  its  designer,  wbo,  discard- 
ing tbe  terms  Classic,  Runic,  Tuscan,  or  otber  names  abso- 


lutely inappropriate  to  tbe  character,  bas  called  it  simply 
Ornamented,  a  name  wbicb  it  really  deserves,  being  one 
of  tbe  handsomest  characters  in  use.  Tbe  coloring  must  be 
left  to  tbe  taste  of  tbe  paintei',  but  it  must  be  pointed  out, 
that  tbe  space  between  tbe  surrounding  line  and  the  letter 
itself  is  not  to  be  filled  in,  in  which  case  it  would  form 
a  heavy  broad  border,  but  it  is  intended  to  be  a  single 
outline  only,  thus  lightening  tbe  effect  of  the  letter,  and  in- 
creasing at  tbe  same  time  its  distinctness. 


mkmM 


Pig.    81. 

Fig.  82  is  an  example  of  Rustic  character,  well  adapted 
for  tbe  name  or  inscription  of  a  horticulturist  or  somewhat 
similar  trade.  In  order  to  elevate  the  art,  tbe  sign-painter 
should  be  prepared  to  submit  sketches  of  tbe  inscription  as 
a  whole,  and  of  individual  letters   drawn  full  size,  and  a 


us 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 


Avell-selected  set  of  patterns  in  a  book  will  afford  the  cus- 
tomer an  opportunity  of  examining  the  different  characters 
before  giving  his  order,  and  the  sign-painter  may  be  as- 
sured that  this  plan  will  be  by  far  the  most  satisfactory 
one  that  could  be  adopted  in  the  interests  of  all  parties 
concerned. 
A  word  is  given  in  Fig.  83  in  the  Elizabethan  eharacterj 


Fig.    82. 

which  is  perhaps  the  best  adapted  for  business  purposes. 
Church  text  is  not  well  fitted  for  general  inscrij^tions,  as 
it  is,  of  course,  more  or  less  associated  with  sacred  things, 
and  as  it  has  varied  from  time  to  time  a  great  amount  of 
study  is  necessary  in  order  to  render  it  correctly. 

In  contrasting  the  Old  English  character  with  the  G-er- 
man  text.  Fig.  84,  it  will  be  observed  that,  whilst  the  for- 
mer is  essentially  angular  and  severe,  the  latter  is  rounded 

Fig.    83. 

and  free.  Thus,  flourishes  seem  almost  necessary  to  Ger- 
man text,  whilst  they  are  utterly  out  of  place  in  Old  Eng- 
lish or  Church  text.  They  should  always  have  some  ap- 
parent connection  with  the  letters  themselves,  and  should 
not  be  used  just  to  fill  up  a  vacant  space.  A  word  or  sen- 
tence is  often  too  crowded  at  one  part  of  the  surface  on 
which   it   is   painted,   leaving  a   blank   space   at   the   other, 


SIGN  PAINTING  349 

and  this  is  usually  filled  up  with  a  meaningless  flourish. 
By  the  method  already  pointed  out  for  spacing  the  letters, 
this  ugly  expedient  is  rendered  unnecessary. 

The  Old  English  and  German  text  do  not  look  well  when 
rendered  with  thickness.  They  are  so  essentially  writing 
characters  that  fine  lines  are  indispensable  to  them,  and  the 
beauty   of   these   and   the   contrast   of   them   with   the   thick 


Xixmx 


Fig.  84. 

lines  are  diminished  when  both  are  viewed  from  the  side, 
and  are  seen  to  be  equal  in  solidity,  both  characters,  how- 
ever, look  well  when  outlined  Avitli  a  darker  color  than 
that  in  which  they  are  painted,  but  in  that  case,  more  than 
ever,  the  absolute  correctness  of  form  must  be  insisted 
upon. 

Italics,  as  in  Fig.  85,  are   not  by  any  means  the  easiest 

MAKER 

Fig.  85. 

characters  with  which  the  sign-painter  has  to  deal,  the 
main  difficulty  being  the  uniformity  of  slope.  In  the  letter 
M,  the  right-hand  down  stroke,  which  in  the  Roman  char- 
acter would  be  upright,  must  take  the  slant  of  the  general 
mass  of  letters. 

The  A  and  V  afford   subjects  for  some   study  and   trial. 
They  may  either  be  drawn  so  that  their  down  strokes  slant 


350  CYCLOPEDIA   OF  PAINTING 

like  the  other  letters,  or  they  may  be  outlined  in  a  paral- 
lelogram, their  point  being  in  the  middle  of  one  of  the 
sides.  The  X  is  necessarily  drawn  according  to  the  latter 
method.  Fig.  86  shows  the  small  letters,  or  lower  ease, 
of  the  Italic  character.  It  is  as  it  were  a  substitute  for 
plain  writing,  but  no  flourishes  of  any  kind  are  admissi- 
ble. 

The  words  written  in  Italic  small,  must  not  be  spread, 
in  fact,  the  character  looks  much  better  when  packed,  or 
placed  close  together,  the  down  strokes  not  being  too  thick. 
It  is  very  important  that  a  uniform  slant  should  be  pre- 
served  throughout,   and   this   slant   should   not   be   quite  as 

Good 
Stabling 

Fig.    S6. 

oblique  as  that  of  writing  characters,  a  set  square  of  a 
different  degree  to  the  one  already  alluded  to  should  there- 
fore be  provided  for  this  purpose.  Of  the  Script  or  writing 
character,  the  most  elegant  of  all,  one  specimen  only  is 
given.  Fig.  87,  knowing  that  this  character  has  been  more 
studied  than  any  other,  since  it  is  the  hand  taught  in 
schools.  Yet,  Avriting  with  a  pen  is  very  different  from 
drawing  the  letters  which  are  to  be  painted,  the  first  is  done 
in  an  off-hand  manner,  the  latter  should  be  drawn  delib- 
erately and  carefully.  The  writing  done  with  a  pen  is  as 
a  rule  temporary  in  character,  and  the  exact  form  of  each 


SIGN  PAINTINO  351 

letter  and  the  spacing  of  the  words  are  matters  of  but  small 
consequence,  unless  the  work  be  a  piece  of  ornamental 
ealigraphy  or  illumination.  But,  a«  already  stated,  the  work 
of  the  sign-painter  is  to  have  a  permanent  object,  and  must 
therefore  be  carefully  outlined  and  spaced.  The  painter 
should  take  as  models  the  engraved  head-lines  of  some  of 
the  copy-books  now  used  in  the  schools,  then  proceed  to 
draw  the  letters  on  a  much  larger  scale,  outlining  them  in 
pencil,  and  subsequently  in  color,  and  finally  pi-acticing  them 
on  an  upright  board. 

As  already  stated,  a  fair  but  not  exaggerated  slant,  and 
much  taste,  are  required  in  the  arrangement  of  the  capitals 
and   their  heights,  and  of  the  heights  and  lengths  of  the 


Fig-.    87. 

long  letters.  If  the  capitals  are  too  small,  a  degree  of 
meanness  is  given  to  the  writing,  and  the  effect  of  the  tails 
of  the  letters  being  too  short  is  extremely  unpleasant.  Va- 
rious teachers  of  writing  and  engraving  have  different  rules 
as  to  the  lengths  of  the  letters  which  are  to  project  above 
and  below  the  lines,  and  these  rules,  which  will  be  appar- 
ent from  the  examples  above  referred  to,  must  be  taken  as 
standards,  to  be  adapted  to  the  circumstances  of  the  case, 
for  the  height  of  the  surface  on  which  the  work  is  to  be 
executed  being  limited,  and  a  certain  inscription  being  re- 
quired, the  heights  of  the  letters  must  in  some  cases  be 
modified,  the  letters  should  then  be  kept  rather  thinner 
than  otherwise,  or  they  will  look   clumsy,  the  thickness  iq. 


352  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

fact  of  the  script  character  should  always  be  kept  within, 
rather  than  up  to,  the  maximum,  as  the  work  never  looks 
well  when  the  down  strokes  are  too  thick. 

As  a  rule,  the  capitals  should  be  at  least  double  the 
height  of  the  line  of  the  other  letters,  and  the  long  letters 
such  as  1,  d,  etc.,  should  be  nearly  up  to  the  same  level, 
w^hilst  the  tails  or  loops  of  letters  such  as  g  or  p  should 
extend  the  same  distance  below  the  line,  the  letter  t  be- 
ing just  half  the  height  of  the  general  letters  above  the 
line.  Thus  if  the  body  of  a  line  of  writing  on  an  archi- 
trave were  to  be  6  inches,  the  capitals  and  long  letters 
should  be  12  inches  high,  whilst  the  latter  should  descend 
6  inches  beloAv  the  line,  and  the  letter  t  should  be  9  inches 
high.  It  adds,  however,  to  the  dignity  of  the  writing  to 
give  the  capitals  still  greater  height,  but  the  long  letters 
should  never  exceed  the  proportions  laid  down,  whilst  they 
may,  if  required,  be  rather  shortened. 

Great  care  is  necessary  in  forming  the  turns  in  writing 
characters,  so  that  the  junctions  of  the  up  and  down  strokes 
may  be  gracefuUj^  accomplished,  the  down  strokes  must  be 
drawn  to  their  exact  slant  until  near  the  turning,  they  must 
not  be  kept,  as  it  were,  bending  in  their  whole  length,  nor 
on  the  other  hand  must  the  bend  take  i^lace  too  suddenly. 

It  is  not  advisable  either  to  give  the  appearance  of  thick- 
ness, or  to  shade  writing  eharactei's,  for  the  lightness  and 
elegance  of  the  work  is  much  diminished  by  either  process. 

A  very  elegant  style  of  writing,  called  the  Italian,  is  well 
adapted  for  inscriptions  where  the  business  is  one  of  a  re- 
fined character. 

It  is  in  fact  to  such  inscriptions  Lliat  the  script  character 
seems  specially  adapted,  the  heavier  or  more  solid  charac- 
ters being  better  suited  to  trades  with  which  they  har- 
monize. 

This  idea  cannot  of  course  be  carried  out  to  its  full  ex- 
tent, as  the  sign-painter  is  greatly  in  the  hands  of  his  em- 
ployer,  but   it   seems    cloai-   tliat    there   should    be   a   certain 


SIGN  PAINTING  353 

consonance  between  the  trade  and  the  inscription,  for  in- 
stance, an  inscription  in  church  text  must  evidently  be  bet- 
ter adapted  to  the  shop  of  a  bookseller,  a  clerical  robe- 
maker,  or  a  Bible  warehouse,  than  over  a  shoemaker's,  a 
butcher's,  or  a  toy  store,  while  the  character  of  the  writing 
should  as  far  as  possible  accord  with  the  style  of  architec- 
ture of  the  store  front  or  building  on  which  it  is  executed. 


STAINS. 

Mordants  are  chemical  preparations,  the  effect  of  which 
is  to  fix  and  enhance  the  colors  given  by  stains  and  dye- 
stuffs.  Spirits  of  niter  is  used  for  the  satin-wood  stain,  a 
strong  solution  of  oxalic  acid  for  the  oak,  and  dilute  nitric 
acid  for  mahogany. 

Mahogany  Stains.  2  ounces  Dragon's-blood  dissolved  in 
a  quart  of  rectified  spirits  of  wine,  shake  frequently  during 
process  of  dissolution. 

Dark.  In  1  gallon  of  water  boil  %  jiound  of  madder  and 
2  ounces  of  logwood  chips,  brush  the  decoction,  whilst  hot, 
well  over,  and  when  dry,  paint  over  the  work  with  a  solution 
of  pearlash,  composed  of  2  drams  of  i^earlash  to  a  quart  of 
water. 

Light.  In  1  quart  of  oil  of  turpentine  dissolve  2  ounces 
of  Dragon's-blood,  keeping  the  vessel  in  a  warm^  place,  and 
frequently  shaking  it.  When  completely  dissolved,  the  mix- 
ture is  to  be  applied  to  the  work,  or  if  the  latter  be  small, 
it  may  be  steeped  in  the  stain. 

Grind  raw  sienna  on  a  slab,  using  beer  as  a  medium,  dur- 
ing grinding,  add  burnt  sienna  until  the  desired  color  is  ob- 
tained. This  mixture  is  then  to  be  thinned,  either  with 
more  beer  or  with  water,  and  is  to  be  applied  with  a  brush, 
and  wiped  off  with  a  piece  of  flannel.  It  is  desirable  to 
avoid  foxey  colored  mahogany,  and  if  this  stain  should  give 
too  brown  a  color,  a  wash  made  of  madder  or  logwood  boiled 
in  water  may  be  passed  either  entirely  or  partially  over  it. 
The  work  may  then  be  oiled,  varnished,  or  polished,  as  de- 
sired. 

Dragon's-blood  is  a  name  given  to  several  resins  found 
in  commerce,  which  have  a  similar  appearance,  a  fine  dark 

354 


STAINS  355 

red.  They  are  produced  by  one  or  two  species  of  calamus, 
or  eane-palm,  and  are  used  for  coloring  varnishes,  and  for 
dj'eing  horn  so  as  to  make  it  resemble  tortoise-shell.  The 
following  are  the  various  kinds  of  dragon's-blood:  In 
sticks,  called  stick  dragon's-blood.  Dragon's-blood  in  drops 
or  beads,  said  to  be  the  best.  Dragon's-blood  in  tears.  Dra- 
gon's-blood in  lumps. 

Madder  is  one  of  the  most  important  coloring  substances 
known,  and  there  are  several  species  of  it.  The  plant  is 
extensively  cultivated  in  Southern  Europe  and  in  Holland. 
Very  large  quantities  of  the  root  come  from  Smyrna,  Trieste, 
Leghorn,  and  other  Mediterranean  ports,  much  of  that  which 
is  received  from  Holland  is  in  powder,  and  comes  in  large 
casks.  The  Turks  formerly  understood  the  manufacture  and 
uses  of  madder  better  than  other  nations,  and  the  color  thus 
obtained  the  name  of  Turkey  red.  In  commerce  there  are 
the  following  varieties  of  common  madder:  Smyrna,  French, 
Syrian,  and  Italian  roots,  and  French,  Dutch-crop,  Ombros, 
and  Mull  ground  madders. 

Logwood.  The  tree  producing  this  dye-wood  is  a  native 
of  Yucatan  in  South  America,  the  principal  town  of  which, 
Campeachy,  situated  on  the  river  San  Francisco  in  the  bay 
of  Campeachy,  was  formerly  the  mart  for  logwood,  but  it 
is  now  extensively  cultivated  in  Jamaica,  and  the  chief  trade 
is  removed  to  Belize,  a  British  settlement  in  the  Bay  of 
Honduras,  whence  immense  quantities  are  annually  exported. 

The  coloring  matter  of  the  logwood  tree  depends  upon  a 
peculiar  principle  called  heematin  or  haematoxylin,  a  red 
ci-ystalline  substance  w^hich  is  so  abundant  in  some  samples 
as  to  exist  in  distinct  blood-red  crystals.  The  stems  are  cut 
into  large  logs,  and  the  bark  and  alburnum  or  white  wood  is 
chopped  off,  the  dark  i-ed  inner  wood  being  the  only  valuable 
portion.  The  color  of  a  decoction  of  logwood  is  of  a  brown- 
ish blood-red.  Acids  change  it  to  the  bright  color  of  red 
ink,  which  is  often  made  of  an  infusion  of  logwood  chips 
to  which  acetic  acid  is  added.     The  alkalies  strike  a  purple 


356  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

or  violet,  and  the  salts  of  iron  a  dark  violet  approaching  a 
black   color. 

Rosewood  Stain.  In  3  pints  of  water  boil  V2  pound  of 
logwood  until  the  decoction  is  of  a  dark  red  color,  then  add 
V2  ounce  of  salts  of  tartar.  The  wood  is  to  receive  three 
or  four  coats  of  this  liquid,  which  must  be  used  whilst  boil- 
ing hot,  each  coat  being  allowed  to  drj'  thoroughly  before 
another  is  applied.  Veins  may  be  formed  in  this  with  the 
black  stain,  using  grainers'  combs  or  other  implements,  but 
if  this  is  done,  the  work  is  removed  from  mere  staining  and 
becomes  an  imitation  of  graining.  Immerse  14  pound  red 
sandalwood  and  I/2  pound  of  potash  in  1  gallon  of  hot 
water.  When  the  color  of  the  wood  is  extracted,  2^/^  pounds 
of  gum  shellac  are  to  be  added,  and  dissolved  over  a  quick 
fire.  The  mixture  may  then  be  used  over  the  stain  above 
described. 

Red  Sandalwood.  This  dye-wood  is  the  produce  of  a  large 
tree  growing  to  the  height  of  sixty  or  seventy  feet  on  the 
mountains  and  other  parts  of  India.  It  is  usually  imported 
in  small  billets  two  or  three  feet  in  length,  of  a  fine  deep 
red  color,  the  concentric  circles  of  the  transverse  section 
being  divided  by  dark,  almost  black,  lines,  with  different 
mordants  it  yields  brownish  red,  scarlet  red,  deep  crimson, 
and  yellowish  red.  These  colors  are  not,  however,  very  per- 
manent. Another  dye-wood,  also  called  red  sandalwood, 
the  native  name  of  which  is  Rutka-chundun,  is  the  produc- 
tion of  the  largest  trees  of  India.  Neither  of  these  must 
be  confounded  with  the  sweet-scented  sandalwoods  which 
are  furniture  woods. 

Black  Stains.  To  6  quarts  of  water  add  1  pound  of  log- 
wood and  two  or  three  handfuls  of  fresh  walnut  jieelings. 
Let  the  whole  boil  well  until  reduced  to  about  half  the 
quantity  of  liquid,  then  strain  and  add  a  pint  of  best  vine- 
gar, boil  again,  and  apply  the  stain  whilst  quite  hot.  Dis- 
solve 1  ounce  of  green  copperas  in  a  quart  of  water,  and 
apply   this  whilst  quite   hot  over  the  previous   stain,  Avhich 


STAINS  357 

will  be  very  much  improved  thereby.  In  3  quarts  of  water 
boil  1/^  pound  of  logwood  chips,  and  add  1  ounce  of  pearl- 
ash,  strain,  and  apply  whilst  hot.  Boil  1/2  pound  of  log- 
wood chips  in  3  quarts  of  water,  adding  V2  ounce  of  verdi- 
gris and  V2  ounce  of  copperas.  Strain  this  decoction  and 
add  1/2  pound  of  rusty  steel  filings.  Wash  this  stain  over 
the  previous  one. 

Brown  Stain.  Make  a  decoction  by  boiling  1  part  of 
Catechu,  Cutch,  or  Gambier  in  30  parts  of  water,  to  which 
add  a  little  soda.  Apply  this  to  the  wood  which  is  to  be 
stained,  and  allow  it  to  dry  in  the  air.  Make  a  solution  of 
1  part  of  bichromate  of  potash  and  30  parts  of  water,  and 
apply  over  the  stain,  which  may  be  varied  in  color  accord- 
ing to  the  strength  of  the  solutions  used.  Catechu,  which 
is  much  used  in  dyeing  and  staining,  is  the  extract  of  the 
wood  of  the  Acacia  Catechu,  the  seeds  of  the  Areca  Catechu, 
and  the  leaves  of  the  Nauclea  Gambir.  The  Acacia  Catechu 
is  a  small  spiny  tree,  rarely  exceeding  twenty  feet  in  height, 
the  wood  is  hard  and  heavy,  the  center  is  of  a  very  dark  red 
color  nearly  approaching  to  black,  it  is  from  this  portion  of 
the  wood  that  the  extract  is  made.  In  India,  it  is  made  by 
the  poorer  natives,  who  move  from  place  to  place,  selecting 
jungles  where  the  Acacia  is  most  abundant.  They  cut  down 
the  trees,  and  chop  the  heart-wood  into  chips,  which  they 
boil  in  water,  when  the  water  is  deeply  colored,  it  is  strained 
off  and  submitted  to  the  process  of  evaporation,  fresh  sup- 
plies of  the  decoction  being  added  until  the  whole  becomes 
sufficiently  thickened  by  evaporation.  It  is  then  poured 
into  clay  moulds  and  left  to  dry  in  the  sun.  The  Catechu 
made  from  the  Acacia  Catechu  is  also  called  Cutch  and 
Terra  Japonica.  The  term  Cutch  is  said  to  be  named  from 
the  native  language,  in  which  the  substance  is  called  Kutt. 
Commercially,  one  variety  is  called  Catechu,  and  another 
Cutch,  although  the  source  is  the  same.  The  former  has 
been  poured  out  onto  mats  when  about  the  consistence  of 
honey  and  dried  in  the  sun.     When  sufficiently  hardened,  it 


358  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

is  cut  into  small  square  pieces,  and,  after  being  thoroughly 
dried,  it  is  packed  into  cane  baskets  for  exportation.  This 
variety  has  a  light  chocolate-brown  color,  and  the  cubes  are 
about  an  inch  square,  having  an  earthy  fracture  and  exter- 
nal appearance.  The  other  variety,  Cutch,  is  of  a  darker 
color,  rich  brown,  with  a  shining  appearance  and  fracture, 
it  comes  much  mixed  with  broken  leaves,  in  which  it  has 
been  laid  to  dry,  it  is  packed  in  a  similar  manner  to  the 
Catechu,  but  is  most  generally  run  into  one  mass.  Gambler, 
or  Gambir,  is  an  extract  of  the  leaves  of  the  Nauclea  Gam- 
bir,  this  plant  belongs  to  the  natural  order  of  the  Cincho- 
nas, or  Jesuits'  bark  trees.  It  is  made  by  boiling  the  leaves 
and  evaporating  the  decoction  to  dryness,  in  appearance  it 
resembles  Cutch,  but  it  is  not  so  glossy  in  its  fracture,  and 
rather  lighter  in  color.  It  is  mostly  imported  from  Singa- 
pore, where  it  is  extensively  cultivated. 

Walnut  Stain.  Boil  1^2  ounces  of  washing  soda,  bichro- 
mate of  potash  ^4  ounce,  in  1  quart  of  water,  and  add  2V2 
ounces  Vandyke  brown.  This  stain  may  be  used  either  hot 
or   cold. 

Red  Stains.  Boil  1  pound  of  Brazil-wood  in  1  gallon  of 
water  for  three  hours  or  more,  add  1  ounce  of  pearlash,  and 
apply  it  to  the  wood  whilst  hot,  then  brush  over  it  a  solu- 
tion made  of  2  ounces  of  alum  in  1  quart  of  water.  A  solu- 
tion of  dragon's-blood  in  spirits-of-wine  makes  a  veiy  good 
stain,  as  already  mentioned.  The  Brazil-wood  is  cut  from 
a  tree  about  twenty  feet  high,  with  prickly  branches  and 
yellow  flowers,  the  decoction  yields,  in  dyeing,  rose-color, 
red,  and  yellow,  according  to  the  mordant  used.  It  is  not 
used  in  dyeing  now  as  much  as  it  was  formerly,  owing  to 
the  introduction  of  superior  materials. 

A  decoction  of  Archil  forms  a  very  good  red  stain  for 
common  work,  two  or  three  washes  of  it  should  be  given, 
after  which  it  should  bo  l)rushed  over  with  a  hot  solution  of 
])earlash  and  water.  Archil,  or  Orchil,  is  the  coloring  mat- 
ter of  the  Orchella  weed  in  soluiion.     It  does  not  in  dyeing 


STAINS  359 

produce  a  fast  color,  but  it  greatly  improves  other  dyes. 
It  soaks,  however,  into  the  fibers  of  wood,  and  is  thus  a 
useful  stain  for  common  work. 

Oak  Stain,  Mix  2  ounces  of  potash  and  2  ounces  of  pearl- 
ash  in  1  quart  of  water,  which  will  make  an  excellent  stain. 
Should  the  color  be  darker  than  required,  it  may  be  diluted 
with  water.  It  must  be  used  vei'y  carefully,  as  the  potash 
will  blister  the  hands  if  allowed  to  touch  them,  the  mixture 
should  also  be  used  with  a  very  common  brush,  as  it  softens 
the  hair  so  as  to  render  it  of  little  value  afterwards, 

Ebonizing  Stains,  The  woods  best  adapted  for  ebonizing 
are  sycamore  and  chestnut,  the  work  should  be  very  well 
smoothed  and  rubbed  with  glass  paper  before  staining,  and 
should  be  finally  rubbed  with  glass  paper  or  cloth  which  has 
been  a  long  time  in  use,  every  particle  of  dust  being  rubbed 
off  with  a  smooth  cloth. 

Boil  1^  pound  of  logwood  chips  in  3  quarts  of  water,  and 
add  1  ounce  of  pearlash.  Apply  this  whilst  hot,  then  boil 
%  pound  of  logwood  chips  in  3  quarts  of  water,  and  add  5/2 
ounce  verdigris,  i/^  ounce  copperas,  strain  the  liquid,  and  then 
add  1/2  pound  rusty  steel  filings  and  some  powdered  nut- 
galls,  and  with  this  go  over  the  wood  a  second  time.  When 
dry,  the  work  is  to  be  well  rubbed  down,  and  if  the  color 
should  appear  uneven,  the  second  stain  must  be  repeated,  in 
which  case  it  must  be  again  rubbed  down.  French  polish, 
made  darker  than  usual  by  the  addition  of  finely  powdered 
stone  blue  or  indigo,  is  then  to  be  used.  Or,  the  black  stain 
first  mentioned  to  be  first  applied,  then  a  plate  or  slate  is 
to  be  held  over  a  lamp  until  a  quantity  of  the  soot  has 
formed,  this,  which  is  fine  lamp  black,  is  to  be  collected  and 
mixed  with  French  polish,  which  is  then  to  be  used  in  the 
ordinary  manner.  This,  too,  may  be  repeated  if  required, 
the  work  having  been  previously  well  rubbed  down. 

Boil  in  a  glazed  pipkin  a  handful  of  logwood  chips  to  1 
pint  of  rain-water,  allowing  it  to  simmer  until  reduced  by 
about  one-fourth,  and  with  this  liquid  give  the  wood  two  or 


360  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

three  coats.  Now  add  to  the  remainder  of  the  liquid  two 
bruised  nut-galls,  a  few  very  rusty  nails,  or  a  piece  of  sul- 
phate of  iron  about  the  size  of  a  pigeon's  egg,  and  add  rain- 
water until  the  original  quantity  of  liquid  is  made  up.  This 
stain  is  to  be  applied  hot,  and  the  work  is  to  be  French- 
polished,  a  little  blue  having  been  px'eviously  mixed  with  the 
polish. 

Nut-Galls.  Gall-nuts,  oak-galls  and  galls  are  excrescences 
formed  upon  the  young  twigs  of  the  various  species  of  oak. 
Galls  are  also  formed  upon  other  plants,  but  the  nut-galls 
of  commerce  are  produced  on  the  species  of  oak  called  the 
Quercus  infectorius,  a  small  shrub  about  5  or  6  feet  in 
height.  They  originate  in  the  puncture  of  an  insect,  Cynips 
gallae-tinctoria.  The  puncture  is  effected  by  the  ovipositor 
of  the  insect,  and  an  egg  is  at  the  same  time  deposited.  An 
interruption  in  the  ordinary  functions  of  the  tissue  of  the 
plant  takes  place  at  the  spot  where  the  egg  is  inserted,  the 
consequence  is,  that  an  excrescence  of  vegetable  matter, 
principally  tannin,  is  formed  round  the  egg,  and  furnishes 
a  nidus  for  the  grub  or  larva  when  hatched.  When  this 
takes  place,  the  grub  eats  its  way  out  through  the  side  of 
the  gall,  after  which  the  vitality  of  the  excrescence  either 
decreases  or  ceases  altogether.  Several  varieties  of  galls 
are  distinguished  in  commerce,  the  principal  of  which  are 
the  blue  and  white,  the  only  difference  is,  that  the  former 
are  gathered  before,  and  the  latter  after,  the  insect  has 
escaped.  The  color  of  the  blue  galls  is  a  slaty  blue,  and 
something  of  a  grayish  green,  the  white  gall  is  of  a  light 
drab  color,  and  much  lighter  in  weight,  it  is  also  less 
valuable  than  the  blue  variety.  Nut-galls  are  nearly  round, 
with  a  few  small  excrescences  over  their  surface.  They 
yield  a  fine  black  color  with  any  of  the  salts  of  iron,  and 
are  used  in  the  preparation  of  writing  ink. 


STAINING. 

The  practice  of  staining  light  and  inexpensive  woods 
to  the  colors  of  more  rich  and  costly  varieties  is  a  branch 
of  graining,  and  the  advantage  of  being  able  to  get  a 
permanent  and  decorative  finish  upon  new  wood  without 
preparatory  painting  is  apparent  to  all. 

Under  the  above  heading  ai'e  two  distinct  treatments, 
in  one,  the  color  effect  alone  is  sought  after,  and  in  the 
other,  the  figure  and  characteristics  of  the  wood  are  also 
imitated.  Both  of  these  methods  have  their  proper  sphere 
and  limitations.  The  description  and  quality  of  the  wood 
stained  is  a  most  important  factor  of  its  successful  treat- 
ment. For  instance,  white  wood  may  be  stained  with  the 
colors  of  light  oak  or  maple,  and  a  rich  and  satisfying 
effect  obtained.  Apply,  however,  the  same  ti;ansparent 
glaze  to  sappy  and  knotty  deal,  or  to  light  pine  with  a 
strongly  marked  grain,  and  at  once  it  is  obvious  that  color 
and  grain  do  not  agree.  Ordinary  pitchpine  may  be  im- 
proved greatly  by  staining  to  the  effect  of  walnut,  but  if 
afterwards  the  figure  of  ordinary  knotted  or  Italian  wal- 
nut were  grained  upon  it,  then  an  unnatural  attempt  at 
combination  would  be  apparent.  The  very  common  and 
popular  red  staining  of  cheap  furniture,  presumably  in 
imitation  of  mahogany,  strikes  in  the  mind  at  once  a  note 
of  discord.  Mahogany  is  an  expensive  wood,  and  there- 
fore imitations  of  its  color  on  common  stuff  are  rather 
objectionable.  Then,  again,  the  color  of  even  the  cheapest 
mahogany  cannot  be  obtained  by  a  bare  coating  of  stain, 
so  that  it  is  not  satisfactory  from  either  point,  consistency 
or  appearance.  Mahogany,  walnut,  maple,  and  other  choice 
woods,   particularly   those   which    are   imitated   best   in   dis- 

361 


362  CYCLOPEDIA   OP   PAINTING 

temper  color,  can,  however,  be  beautifully  grained  upon 
prepared  plain  wood,  with  results  almost  equal  to  work 
done  upon  painted  grounds.  As  in  most  of  these  dark 
varieties  it  is  necessary  to  first  stain  the  wood  a  general 
color,  the  pigments  and  fluids  most  serviceable  for  plain 
staining  purposes  may  be  considered  from  the  painter's 
and  grainer's  point  of  view,  not  from  the  polisher's. 

Preparation  for  plain  staining  is  a  matter  of  circum- 
stance, depending  ujion  the  nature  of  the  wood  to  be  stained 
and  of  that  to  be  imitated.  If  the  wood  is  of  the  poorest 
quality,  soft  and  sappy,  coat  it  with  patent  glue  size  of  fair 
strength.  All  common  staining  requires  to  be  sized  to  en- 
able the  varnish  to  bear  out.  It  is,  however,  advisable 
that,  for  floors  and  all  similar  surfaces  exposed  to  hard 
wear,  the  stain  should  be  applied  first;  othei'wise,  instead 
of  sinking  into  the  wood,  the  color  is  merely  lying  on  the 
surface,  and  is  more  easily  worn  away.  In  oil  staining 
ordinary  house  woodwork  and  cheap  panellings,  apply  the 
size  before  the  stain.  When  the  former  is  dry,  it  will  be 
found  that  the  oil  stain,  which  now  is  gi-aining  color,  also 
can  be  spread  much  better  and  more  regularly,  and  that 
those  sappy  places  which  would  otherwise  have  absorbed 
much  stain  are  scarcely  noticeable.  In  sizing  white  or 
stained  wood,  poor  work  often  results  from  the  quirks  and 
mitres  of  mouldings  receiving  too  much  of  the  froth  of 
the  warm  size.  This  can  be  easily  avoided  by  adding  one 
teaspoonful  of  turpentine  to  every  pint  of  size.  For  pre- 
paring a  higher  class  of  woodwork  whose  color  it  is  chiefly 
the  desire  to  alter,  there  are  several  better  methods  avail- 
able. For  staining  a  good  specimen  of  pitchpine  to  a 
walnut  shade,  first  coat  with  either  japanners'  gold  size, 
diluted  with  one-third  of  turps,  or  with  raw  linseed  oil,  a 
little  turps,  and  about  one-tenth  part  of  good  liquid  driers. 
The  dilute  gold  size  is  the  most  costly  and  quickest,  as  it 
may  be  stained  upon  in  a  few  hours,  but  for  permanence 
and  cheapness  the  drj'ing  oil  is  the  best.     Both  aro  brushed 


STAINING  363 

on  in  the  same  manner  as  varnish  is  applied,  only  rather 
more  sparingly.  When  plain  staining  or  varnishing  white 
wood,  it  is  often  necessary  to  avoid  all  possible  after-dis- 
coloration arising  from  the  oil  darkening  with  age,  and, 
since  it  is  prepared  from  the  same  source,  the  gold  size 
is  liable  to  the  same  defect.  In  such  a  case,  then,  clear 
size  or  patent  size  should  be  substituted,  and  the  whitest 
copal  oil  varnish  used  for  the  finish.  One  drawback  com- 
mon to  sizing  is  the  tendency  of  the  fluid  to  raise  the  sur- 
face grain  of  the  wood,  this  being  particularly  the  case 
when  the  size   is  used  hot. 

Mixing  oil  stains,  namely,  stains  prepared  with  a  drying 
oil  and  painter's  pigments,  is  a  simple  matter.  Take  3 
parts  oil  to  1  part  of  turpentine,  add  the  liquid,  or  even 
paste,  driers  as  before  mentioned,  and  then  the  simple 
addition  of  the  pigment  or  stainer  completes  the  mixture. 
As  advised  for  the  preparatory  coating,  japan  gold  size  and 
turps  may  be  used  for  the  liquid,  or,  better  still,  copal  var- 
nish may  be  stained  and  diluted  with  turps.  The  advan- 
tage of  using  the  two  last  mentioned  is  their  quickness  of 
hardening;  whilst  the  cheaper  oil  mixtures  are  far  better 
for  spreading  evenly  and  regularly  over  large  surfaces. 
Herewith  are  a  few  particulars  of  color  stains,  which,  with 
the  foregoing,  should   suffice   for  all   ordinary  purposes : 

Light  oak  oil  stain  may  be  made  from  raw  sienna,  with 
the  addition   of  a  little  raw  Turkey  umber. 

Medium  oak  oil  stain  may  be  made  from  raw  sienna  and 
burnt  Turkey  umber. 

Dark  oak  oil  stain  is  best  made  from  burnt  Turkey  umber 
alone;  the  yellow  cast  of  the  copal  varnish,  which  should  be 
used  for  finishing  this  class  of  work,  is  here  sufficient  to 
give  the  required  trace  of  yellowness. 

Antique  oak  stain  is  a  mixture  of  ivory  black,  finely 
ground,  with  a  very  little  burnt  sienna.  Vandyke  brown 
alone  makes  a  deep  rich  stain,  its  color,  when  ground  in 
oil,  being  not  so  red  as  when  used  in  distemper.     This  pig- 


364  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

ment,  being  a  notably  bad  drier,  requires  fully  double  the 
usual  quantity  of  terebine  added  to  the  oil  fluid. 

Walnut  oil  stain  for  varnishing  upon,  without  any  after 
glazing  and  liguring,  may  be  colored  with  burnt  Turkey 
umber  and  a  little  ivory  black.  For  a  ground  color  stain, 
that  is,  one  on  which  walnut  figure  is  to  be  grained,  raw 
umber  is  the  better  pigment,  since  its  subdued  tone  con- 
trasts more   naturally   with   the  after  figure   work. 

Pitchpine  oil  stains  for  use  on  light  wood  are  formed 
with  raw  sienna,  with  the  addition  of  a  little  burnt  sienna; 
a  little  burnt  umber  can  be  added  if  the  siennas  alone  are 
too  red.  In  most  instances  the  pine  is  cheaply  prepared,  and 
varnished  with  copal.  The  presence  of  so  much  resin  and 
matter  of  a  discoloring  nature  in  pitchpine  soon  causes  a 
very  appreciable  darkening  of  the  original  color,  hence, 
when  it  is  desirous  to  keep  the  wood  permanently  light,  the 
copal  varnish  used  should  be  of  the  whitest  make,  and  the 
size  be  either  strong  parchment,  or  the  special  light  japan- 
ners'.  All  holes  should  be  carefully  stopped  with  common 
putty  of  two  shades,  colored  to  match  both  the  ground  and 
grain  of  the  wood,  after  the  sizing.  Allow  it  to  harden  for 
a  day  or  so  before  varnishing.  When  the  real  pine  is 
desired  to  be  stained  much  darker,  besides  the  umbers, 
Vandyke  brown,  and  black  pigments,  use  may  be  made  of 
diluted  washes  of  either  black  japan  or  Brunswick  black. 
Use  only  those  of  a  thoroughly  good  quality,  and  then  with 
pure  turpentine.  When  staining  pine  dark,  it  is  preferable 
to  use  the  stain  before  sizing,  if  the  grain  is  desired  to  be 
very  prominent,  a  full  coat  should  be  spread,  and  then 
shortly  afterwards  all  the  stain  lying  on  the  surface  may 
be  rubbed  off  with  old  cloth  or  rag  free  from  fluffiness. 

Mahogany  oil  stain  can  scarcely  be  obtained  of  a  good 
color  by  ordinary  brush  staining.  Burnt  sienna  alone  is 
somewhat  garish,  and  the  only  perfect  substitute  for  the 
victoria  lake  used  in  distemper  graining  is  madder  lake, 
which  is  too  expensive  for  ordinary  use.     Whenever  cheap 


STAINING  365 

mahogany  stain  is  required,  it  sliould  be  made  to  match 
ordinary  baywood  as  nearly  as  possible.  For  furniture  and 
better-class  work,  a  good  mahogany  effect  may  be  obtained 
by  oil  staining  with  burnt  sienna  and  Vandyke,  and,  when 
dry,  over-glazing  with  ordinary  victoria  or  mahogany  lake 
in  water.  If  the  wood  is  at  all  sappy  and  strong  in  mark- 
ings of  a  nature  contrary  to  mahogany,  it  must  first  be 
sized,   stopped,   and  then  oil-stained. 

Cheap  water  stains  may  be  made  easily  from  any  of  the 
above  pigments,  which,  whether  used  in  oil  or  water  mix- 
tures, should  always  be  purchased  ready  ground.  Nearly 
all  these  colors  have  a  natural  binding  quality  with  water 
alone,  but  the  addition  of  a  little  beer  will  easily  bind  ivory 
or  vegetable  black.  Water  stains  must  always  be  applied 
directly  upon  the  wood,  and  therefore  there  is  a  double 
disadvantage  in  using  them.  The  stain  itself  has  no  filling 
power,  so  that  a  second  coat  of  either  size  or  varnish  is 
necessary,  and  water  stain  does  not  spread  so  well  with  the 
brush  as  oil.  Preferably,  water  stain  is  applied  with  a 
pjiece  of  sponge,  and  superfluous  stain  should  be  wiped  off 
the  surface. 

Maple  and  satinwood  imitations,  when  grained  on  white 
wood,  are  executed  with  the  same  water  pigments  and  proc- 
ess as  upon  paint.  The  wood  for  these  two  varieties  must 
be  free  from  grain  or  knot,  and  must  first  be  once  sized  and 
varnished  with  the  whitest  materials.  This  gives  a  non- 
absorbent  ground  for  working  the  distemper  stains  upon. 
When  the  figure  is  completed  another  good  coat  of  varnish 
gives  a  capital  surface. 

Walnut,  mahogany,  and  similar  dark  woods  must  have 
the  grounds  sized,  and  then  colored  with  oil  stain  to  the 
shade  nearest  to  the  usual  grounding  paint.  The  size  and 
stain  together  will  suffice  for  working  upon,  but  two  coats 
of  varnish  are  required  for  dark  imitations  of  this  kind. 
With  walnut  and  mahogany  the  first  coating  is  applied  spar- 


3G6  CYCLOPEDIA  OF   PAINTING 

ingly  before  the  glazing,  and  a  final  flowing  coat  after- 
wards. 

Flat  varnishing  or  dull  polishing  may  be  used  to  much 
advantage  in  finishing  any  kind  of  copal-varnished  or  oil- 
stained  surface.  A  simple  jjreparation  of  the  former  can  be 
made  from  a  piece  of  genuine  beeswax  the  size  of  a  walnut 
dissolved,  and  thoroughly  mixed  by  heat,  in  I/2  piiit  of 
pure  turpentine,  and  1  ounce  of  copal  varnish  added  thereto. 
Dull  polishing  may  be  done  by  carefully  dulling  either 
varnish  or  polish  with  finely  ground  pumice-stone  and  felt, 
or  a  piece  of  soft  cloth,  used  with  water,  and  then  rubbing 
with  putty-powder  and  oil  to  obtain  a  soft  gloss. 

Matching.  The  purpose  of  this  process,  is,  as  its  name 
implies,  to  make  the  different  pieces  of  wood  of  which 
any  piece  of  furniture  is  made  up,  match  or  correspond, 
so  that  they  may  be  of  a  uniform  color.  It  will  therefore 
be  understood  that  some  parts  maj^  require  lightening,  and 
others  darkening.  For  the  first,  make  a  strong  solution 
of  oxalic  acid  in  hot  water,  and  add  a  few  di-ops  of  spirits 
of  nitre,  and  wash  this  carefully  over  the  parts  which  are 
to  be  lightened,  when  quite  dry,  the  surface  should  have 
two  or  three  coats  of  white  polish.  Give  the  parts  to  be 
lightened  a  wash  of  a  clear  white  stain,  and  another  of 
white  varnish,  give  the  intermediate  parts  a  coat  of  com- 
mon varnish,  and  oil  the  untouched  white  parts,  bring  all 
up  to  an  equal  tint  by  a  darkening  stain,  if  necessary. 

Darkening.  The  darkeners  generally  used  are  logwood, 
lime,  brown,  soft-soap,  dyed  oil,  and  various  chemicals,  such 
as  aquafortis,  sulphate  of  iron  and  nitrate  of  silver.  An 
intelligent  manipulation,  however,  of  the  stains  themselves 
will  render  special  darkeners  i;nnecessary,  for  in  most  cases 
the  required  depth  of  color  can  be  obtained  by  repeating 
the  stain,  or  by  darkening  it  for  a  second  wash,  and  a 
small  quantity  of  coloring  matter  may  also  be  mixed  up 
with   the  varnish. 

When  it  is  desired  to  deepen  the  natural  color  of  woods, 


STAINING  367 

or  to  restore  such  as  may  have  become  discolored  by  time 
or  other  circumstances,  the  process  called  Improving  is 
adopted,  and  this  differs  in  no  essential  particular  from 
staining,  excepting  that  its  object  is  merely  to  improve 
the  color  and  bring  out  the  natural  grain  of  the  wood 
itself,  instead  of  attempting  to  make  it  represent  another 
from  which  its  veining  may  entirely  differ.  Barberry  root 
boiled  in  water,  Gamboge  or  Turmeric  dissolved  in  spirit, 
give  good  yellow  stains  adapted  for  the  purpose.  A  good 
red  oil  for  rubbing  discolored  mahogany  or  rosewood,  or 
for  deeping  the  color  of  bay-wood,  may  be  made  in  the 
following  manner:  Tie  up  some  Alkanet-root  in  a  muslin 
bag,  and  let  it  soak  over  night  in  some  sweet  oil.  The  oil 
which  is  then  pressed  from  the  bag  will  impart  a  beautiful 
red  color  to  all  the  rest.  The  grain  of  the  wood  is  well 
brought  out  by  its  being  rubbed  with  ammonia  before  the 
oil  is  applied.  Rectified  naphtha,  colored  with  Camwood 
dust,  is  another  good  red  tint.  Discolored  ebony  may  be 
improved  by  washing  over  it  a  strong  decoction  of  gall- 
nuts  in  which  a  quantity  of  steel  filings  has  been  immersed, 
this  liquid  should  be  allowed  to  stand  a  day,  and  should 
then  be  carefully  strained,  and,  as  before  stated,  a  little 
indigo  should  be  added  to  the  French  polish.  Raw  oil  mixed 
with  a  small  quantity  of  turpentine  serves  to  improve  most 
woods  when  well  rubbed  into  them,  and  this  may  be  greatly 
enhanced  in  value  by  grinding  up  with  it  a  small  quantity 
of  the  color  which  it  is  desired  to  impart  to  the  wood,  or 
by  mixing  with  it  oil  previously  colored  in  the  manner 
already   described. 

The  well-known  pigment  called  Gamboge  is  a  gummy  and 
slightly  resinous  exudation  from  the  young  wood  of  the 
Gamboge-tree,  Though  not  a  dye-stuff.  Gamboge  is  much 
used  in  coloring,  forming  a  valuable  water-color,  and  is  also 
used  in  coloring  lacquer  for  varnish  for  brass-work.  There 
is  some  reason  to  believe  that  Gamboge  is  made  from  more 
than    one    species.      There    are    three    kinds    of    Gamboge: 


368  CYCLOPEDIA   OP  PAINTING 

Pipe  Gamboge,  which  is  the  best,  it  comes  from  Siam  in 
rolls  one  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter  and  about  twelve 
inches  long,  through  which  there  is  a  hole  about  half  an 
inch  in  diameter.  Lump  Gamboge,  in  masses  weighing  about 
one  or  two  pounds,  and  having  the  ai)pearance  of  a  hard- 
ened yellow  paste.     Gamboge  in  tears  or  small  drops. 

Turmeric  is  the  rhizone,  or  root-stalk,  of  a  plant  called 
the  Curcuma  longa.  There  are  several  varieties,  of  which 
the  China  and  Bengal  are  considered  the  best.  The  colors 
produced  by  Turmeric  are  various  and  very  beautiful  shades 
of  yellow.  It  is  not  as  a  dye-stuff  considei'ed  permanent, 
but  in  the  stains,  -when  oiled  or  varnished,  this  failing  is 
materially  remedied. 

Alkanet-root.  Tlie  plant  from  which  this  root  is  obtained 
is  of  a  diffuse  character,  rarely  attaining  a  height  of  a  foot. 
It  is  much  cultivated  in  the  south  of  France,  and  some 
portions  of  Germany.  Its  chief  use  is  in  giving  a  fine  crim- 
son color  to  perfumerj-  and  woods,  for  which  purposes  it  is 
soaked  in  oil  in  the  manner  above  described. 

Cam-wood.  This  tree  is  a  native  of  Sierra  Leone,  and 
has  shining  leaves  and  white  flowers.  It  is  of  considerable 
size,  often  attaining  the  height  of  fifty  feet.  The  stem  is 
the  part  used,  it  is  cut  into  logs  about  four  feet  in  length, 
and  these,  after  the  removal  of  the  bark  and  outer  wood, 
are  split  and  trimmed  square  for  exportation,  they  are  of 
a  deep  red  color,  and  yield  a  brilliant  red  dye,  which  is 
rendered  much  deeper  by  sulphate  of  iron. 


STENCILLING. 

Some  of  the  methods  by  which  the  embellishment  of 
walls  and  ceilings  can  be  achieved  by  means  of  stencilling 
are  extremely  simple,  and  their  effectiveness  when  finished 
is  far  out  of  proportion  to  the  smallness  of  the  time,  the 
labor,  and  the  cost  involved.  Some  of  these  methods  it  is 
intended  briefly  to  indicate  in  this  article,  and  the  reader 


3re5:5-^ 


Fig.    88. 

will  find  no  difficulty  in  following  out  the  directions  which 
follow. 

Fig.  88  shows  a  simple  treatment  in  ashlar  work  suited 
for  ornamenting  a  dado.  Stencils  have  been  arranged  with 
a  particular  aim  to  their  use  for  a  drawing-room  or  parlor, 
and  as  giving  a  sensation  of  more  decided  elegance  and 
delicacy  of  environment  than  does  wall  paper  or  paint. 
We  have  a  deep  frieze  (Fig.  89),  a  base  and  scroll-pattern 
border    (Fig.   90),   and   an   ornament   for  the   ceiling    (Fig. 

369 


370 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 


91).  It  will  be  seen  that  the  frieze  design  will  require 
much  more  care  in  enlarging  than  the  one  shown  by  Fig. 
88,  and  also  that  it  cannot  be  extended  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  latter.  Some  alteration  in  depth  may  be  effected 
with  the  dark  border-band  on  top.  This  may  be  omitted 
or,  to  gain  width,  may  be  repeated  as  a  base-band  to  tlie 
frieze. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  two  ground  colors  are  suggested 
in   the    base-border    (Fig.   90).      On    this    feature   much    of 


■  ^M^— ■■ ,.'  '    '  ■— M^—     _■-■»■  ...  .'-         .     ■  . 


Fig.    89. 

the  charm  of  the  effect  will  depend,  and  it  well  repays  the 
trouble  of  first  painting  in  the  upper  half  with  a  darker 
or  contrasting  color. 

The  chief  danger,  and  one  that  must  be  avoided  at  all 
cost  of  color  prettiness,  lies  in  the  colors  and  tones  not 
being  balanced — that  is  to  say,  the  design  must  be  kept 
equally  distinct  and  plain  throughout,  and  not  dying  away 
into  the  wall  in  some  portions.  The  blending  of  stencil 
ornament  is  scarcely  a  task  for  the  novice,  and  perhaps  the 
best  results  will  be  met  with  when  the  color-charm  is  pres- 


STENCILLING 


371 


ent  in  the  contrasting  masses  of  color,  and  the  designs  kept 
full  in  contrast  and  pleasing  by  reason  of  their  form  and 
arrangement  of  line  and  curve. 

A  deep  Gobelin  or  greenish  blue  may  be  used  for  sten- 
cilling the  frieze  design,  or  a  marone  brown.  The  base 
(Fig.  92)  should  be  stencilled  with  similar  color,  upon 
grounds  of  medium  Gobelin  blue  (upper)  and  wall  color 
(lower  portion).     If  the  frieze  design  is  done  in  blue,  use 


Figr.  90. 


marone  brown  for  the  margin  band,  which  is,  of  course,  put 
in  with  a  small  separate  stencil.  The  cornice  will  be  in 
old  gold  and  creams,  in  tone  with  wall  filling,  the  ceiling 
gray,  and  the  ceiling  stencil  in  blue  and  marone  brown 
upon  a  margin  having  old  gold  ground.  The  woodwork  of 
room  should  be  nut-brown  and  fawns,  with  a  little  gilding. 
Stencil  brushes,  as  shown  in  Figs.  93  and  94,  specially 
made  for  this  work  are  to  be  bought  at  the  dealers.    They 


372 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 


are  of  short  hair,  flattened  across  the  end  for  the  purpose 
of  dabbing,  fixed  in  round  handles  bound  in  tin  or  brass. 

Stencilling  has  a  perfect  legitimate  use  as  a  help  in  lay- 
ing in  decorations  which  are  afterwards  to  be  finished  by 
hand    pencilling.     When   stencilling   is   thus   made   only   a 


W 
>% 


i 


Fig.    91. 

preliminary  process,  the  design  may  be  treated  freely. 
Breadth  and  simplicity  are  no  longer  essentials,  and  in  mak- 
ing the  plates  ties  may  be  put  in  at  random,  or  wherever 
they  will  give  greatest  strength,  for  all  traces  of  them  can 
be  removed,  as  before  said,  with  the  pencil,  yet  a  difficult 


-®-  • 


Fis.    02. 

matter  in  purely  stencilled  work,  as  the  pencil  will  not  give 
precisely  the  same  texture  as  the  stencil  brush.  Thus  used 
stencilling  becomes  an  invaluable  aid  to  an  indifferent  dec- 
orator, who  by  this  means  gets  in  all  the  main  details  leaving 
only  unimportant  parts  to  be  made  good  afterwards  by 
hand  work. 


STENCILLING 


373 


Used  as  a  decorative  process,  stencilling  has  a  character 
of  its  own,  and  an  interest  in  proportion  as  it  is  character- 
istic. 

The  design  drawn,  method  of  producing  a  stencil  from  it 
will  be  described.  Stencils  may  be  cut  in  vellum,  paper, 
parchment,  lead  foil,  and  thin  brass,  the  two  latter  are 
unsuitable  to  the  requirements  of  the  decorator,  the  lead 
foil  being  used  principally  by  glass  writers  and  embossers. 
Having  prepared  the  paper,  the  process  of  cutting  out  will 
be  found  to  demand  the  greatest  care,  and,  above  all,  well 
ground  and  sharpened  tools.  Have  an  oil-stone  within 
reach,  therefore,  and  use  it  frequently.  It  is  quite  use- 
less  going   to    work   with    a   blunt   knife.     There    is   much 


Fig.    93. 


diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the  most  suitable  blade  for 
stencil  cutting.  The  ordinary  penknife  blade  is  scarcely 
graduated  enough  for  the  purpose,  for  sweeping  round  the 
curve  in  the  pattern  shape. 

In  cutting,  the  knife  should  be  held  firmly  between  the 
forefinger  and  thumb,  the  thicker  part  of  the  blade  rest- 
ing lightly  against  the  tip  of  the  second  finger.  The  stencil 
paper  should  be  held  in  its  position  by  the  left  hand.  In 
cutting  a  curve  draw  the  paper  gently  but  steadily  away 
from  the  body,  and  consequently  against  the  cutting  blade 
in  the  direction  required  by  the  degree  of  curvature  shown 
in  the  design.  A  square  of  plate  glass  is  the  best  material 
for  cutting  on.  Perforations  of  a  circular  form  are  made 
by  the  use  of  a  leather-punch,  procurable  at  any  tool  ware- 


374 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 


house.  These  punches  are  made  in  various  sizes,  and  are 
so  constructed  that  the  pieces  cut  out  of  the  stencil  paper 
by  the  cutting  edge  pass  into  the  body  of  the  punch,  whence 
they  are  easily  removed  at  the  opening  in  the  upper  portion 
of  the  implement.  It  is  not  necessary  to  strike  the  punch, 
a  firm  pressure  of  the  hand  is  generally  sufficient  for  the 
Iturpose  required,  slightly  turning  the  wrist  at  the  same 
moment. 

A  sheet  of  tin  might,  and  probably  does,  answer  for  the 
time,  but  the  repeated  indentations  of  the  surface  and  the 
deep   cuts   or  scratches  it   receives  beneath   the   pressure   to 


Fig.  94. 

which  it  must  of  necessity  be  subjected,  militate  against 
its  use.  The  edge  of  the  knife  may  not  be  so  much  injured, 
but  the  point  may  at  anj'^  moment  slip  into  one 
of  the  scratches,  and  that  simple  deviation  from  the  direc- 
tion in  which  it  was  intended  it  should  have  gone  would 
not  improbably  ruin  an  early  completed  stencil-plate. 

It  is,  again,  a  frequent  mistake  to  make  a  stencil  on  too 
stout  a  paper.  The  strength  of  paper  does  not  depend  upon 
its  stoutness,  a  closely  woven  thin  paper  often  possesses 
greater  tenacity  than  much  more  bulky  specimens.  Heavy 
drawing  paper  may  be  used  for  almost  every  purpose. 


TURPENTINE. 

Turpentine  does  not  burn  the  paint  as  many  believe. 
Turpentine  evaporates  the  slowest  of  any  of  the  volatile 
paint  solvents.  It  is  used  to  give  ease  in  working,  foi-m 
depth  of  penetration  and  assist  in  drying.  Use  turpentine 
liberally  in  priming  or  middle  coats.  When  used  in  undei'- 
eoatings,  turpentine  reduces  the  gravity  of  the  oil  and  as- 
sists in  opening  the  pores  of  the  wood,  thus  allowing  of 
greater  depth  of  penetration.  If  used  in  middle  coats  or 
for  reeoating  old  surfaces,  it  assists  in  penetrating  the  pre- 
vious coating  and  materially  helps  to  cut  the  oil  which 
is  the  gloss  of  the  paint,  leaving  a  better  tooth  for  the 
binding    of    the    finishing    coat. 

Never  substitute  gasoline  or  benzine  for  turpentine,  they 
are  not  substitutes.  Gasoline  is  not  a  paint  solvent,  it 
is  the  lightest  of  the  petroleum  products  and  worthless  as 
a  substitute  for  the  use  to  which  turpentine  is  put.  Ben- 
zine and  naphtha,  while  better  paint  solvents  than  gasoline, 
are  light  petroleum  products  of  high  specific  gravity,  reduc- 
ing rapidly  and  evaporating  quickl}-,  they  do  not  penetrate 
but  evaporate  on  the  surface,  making  the  paint  work  hard, 
retarding  the  brushing  out  of  paint  and  preventing  working 
the  pigment  into  the  pores  of  the  wood,  leaving  too  much 
pigment  and  a  dangerous  undercoat  without  sufficient  pen- 
etration or  binder. 

Study  the  siu'face  to  be  painted  and  use  turpentine  in 
the  reduction  according  to  the  condition  of  the  surface.  If 
new  work,  constructed  of  hard,  close-grained  lumber,  more 
turpentine  must  be  used  than  if  constructed  of  soft,  open- 
grained  lumber  of  quick  absorption.  The  liberal  use  of 
turpentine  in  priming  improperly  seasoned  lumber  or  lumber 

375 


376  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   1  AINTING 

which  contains  moisture  will  assist  in  producing  better 
penetration. 

In  repainting  an  old  surface,  the  first  coat  must  be  re- 
duced with  turpentine  according  to  the  porosity  of  the 
surface.  If  a  hard,  flinty  surface,  much  more  turpentine 
must  be  used  than  if  porous  or  weather-beaten.  The  mix- 
ture should  range  from  flat,  half  flat  to  semi-gloss.  Never 
apply   a  heavy   coating   of  full   oil   reduction. 

Paint  which  has  become  fatty  and  gummy  can  be  par- 
tially remedied  by  the  addition  of  a  small  amount  of  tur- 
pentine. When  painting  in  hot,  humid  weather,  a  small 
amount  of  turpentine  added  to  the  finishing  coat  will  aid 
in  hardening  the  paint. 


VARNISHES. 

It  is  not  economical  for  painters  to  make  these  for  them- 
selves, as  they  may  be  purchased  both  cheaper  and  in 
most  cases  better  than  they  could  make  them.  At  the  same 
time  it  is  well  to  know  how  to  make  these  important  com- 
pounds, for  it  may  so  occur  that  the  materials  may  be 
obtained  where  the  varnish  itself  could  not,  or  other  cir- 
cumstances may  render  it  desirable  that  the  varnish  should 
be  made  at  home,  a  few  receipts  for  the  purpose  are,  there- 
fore, given. 

Table  Varnish.  Take  of  oil  of  turpentine  1  pound,  bees- 
wax 2  ounces,  colophony  1  drachm.  Dammar  resin  1  pound, 
spirits  of  turpentine  2  pounds,  camphor  200  grains.  Allow 
the  mixture  to  stand  for  twenty-four  hours,  and  the  por- 
tion poured  off  is  fit  for  immediate  use. 

Furniture  Varnishes.  Dissolve  l^/^  pounds  of  shellac  in 
1  gallon  of  naphtha,  and  it  will  be  ready  for  use  as  soon 
as  the  dissolution  is  complete.  Dissolve  12  ounces  of  shellac 
and  3  ounces  of  copal,  or  an  equivalent  of  Copal  Varnish, 
in  1  gallon  of  naphtha.  Dissolve  2  ounces  mastic,  1^2 
pounds  shellac,  4  ounces  seed  lac,  4  ounces  sandarach,  or  1 
gallon  of  rectified  spirits  of  wine,  benzoin,  and  dragon's 
blood,  tumeric  and  other  coloring  matters  may  be  added 
as  required. 

Mahogany  Varnish.  Gum  sandarach  2  ounces,  shellac  1 
ounce,  gum  benjamin  ^  ounce,  Venice  turpentine  1  ounce, 
spirits  of  wine  1  pint.  Color  red  with  dragon's  blood,  or 
yellow  with  saffron,  place  the  vessel  containing  these  in- 
gredients in  a  warm  spot,  until  the  gum  has  dissolved,  then 
strain  for  use. 

White  Furniture  Varnish.  Dissolve  6  ounces  of  white 
wax  in  1  pint  of  oil  of  tarpentine  by  gentle  heat,  or  white 

377 


378  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

wax  6  parts,  petroleum  48.  To  be  applied  to  the  work 
whilst  warm;  allowed  to  cool,  and  then  to  be  polished  by 
rubbing  with  a  coarse  cloth. 

Dark  Varnish  for  light  wood-work.  Shellac  16  parts, 
gum  sandarach  32,  gum  mastic  cS,  gum  elemi  8,  dragon's 
blood  4,  anatto  1,  white  turpentine  16,  alcohol  256.  Dilute 
also  with  alcohol,  if  required. 

Varnish  which  resists  boiling  water.  Linseed  oil  1^/2 
pounds,  amber  1  pound,  pulverized  litharge  5  ounces,  powder 
white  lead  5  ounces,  minium  5  ounces.  Boil  the  linseed  oil 
in  an  untinned  copper  vessel,  and  suspend  in  it  the  litharge 
and  minium  in  a  small  bag,  which  must  not  touch  the  bot- 
tom of  the  vessel.  Continue  the  ebullition  until  the  oil  has 
acquired  a  deep  brown  color,  then  take  out  the  bag,  and 
put  in  a  clove  of  garlic,  this  is  to  be  repeated  seven  or 
eight  times,  the  boiling  being  continued.  Before  amber  is 
added  to  the  oil,  it  is  to  be  mixed  with  2  ounces  of  linseed 
oil,  and  melted  over  a  fire  that  is  well  kept  up.  When 
the  mass  is  fluid,  it  is  to'  be  poured  into  the  linseed  oil, 
this  mixture  is  to  be  boiled  and  stirred  continually  for  two 
or  three  minutes.  Afterwards,  filter  the  mixture,  and  pre- 
serve it  in  a  bottle  well  corked  up.  When  this  varnish  is 
used  the  wood  must  be  previously  well  polished,  and  covered 
with  a  thin  coat  of  soot  and  spirits  of  turpentine.  When 
this  coat  is  dry,  some  of  the  varnish  may  be  applied  with 
a  sponge,  taking  care  that  it  is  equally  distributed  on  every 
part.  This  operation  is  to  be  repeated  four  times,  being 
always  careful  that  each  coat  be  well  dried  before  another 
is  put  over  it.  After  the  last  coat  of  varnish  the  wood 
must  be  dried  in  an  oven,  and  afterwards  polished. 

Turpentine  Varnish.  One  pint  of  spirits  of  turpentine, 
10  ounces  clear  resin  pounded,  put  it  in  a  tin  can  on  a 
stove,  and  let  it  boil  for  half  an  hour.  When  the  resin 
is  dissolved,  and  the  mixture  has  cooled,  it  will  be  ready 
for   use. 

White,  hard,   spirit  Varnish.     In   three  pints  of  rectified 


VARNISHES  .  379 

spirit  dissolve  1  pound  of  gum  sandarach,  and  add  6  ounces 
of  turpentine.  Dissolve  4  ounces  gum  mastic,  1/2  pound 
gum  juniper,  in  4  pints  rectified  spirit,  add  to  the  mixture 
1  ounce  of  turpentine.  Mastic  in  tears  2  ounces,  sandarach 
8  ounces,  gum  elemi  1  ounce,  Chio  turpentine  4  ounces,  rec- 
tified spirit  1  quart. 

Mastic  Varnish.  Immerse  10  ounces  of  the  clearest  gum 
mastic  in  1  pint  of  tui'pentine,  place  the  vessel  containing 
the  mixture  in  a  sand  bath  until  the  mastic  is  all  dissolved, 
then  strain  it  through  a  fine  sieve,  and  it  will  be  ready  for 
use,  if  too  thick,  it  may  be  diluted  by  the  addition  of 
spirits  of  turpentine. 

Copal  Varnish.  Melt  8  parts  of  powdered  copal  gum  in 
an  iron  pot  by  slow  heat,  and  2  parts  balsam  capivi  pre- 
viously warmed.  Then  remove  from  the  fire,  and  add  10 
parts  spirits  of  turpentine,  also  warmed,  in  order  to  reduce 
to  the  necessary'  degree  of  thickness  for  working. 

Gum  Copal  is  made  more  soluble  in  spirits  of  turpentine 
"by  melting  the  powdered  crude  gum,  and  allowing  it  to  stand 
for  some  time  loosely  covered.  Powdered  copal  24  parts, 
spirits  of  turpentine  40,  camphor  1,  4  ounces  copal,  I/2  ounce 
camphor,  3  ounces  white  drying  oil,  2  ounces  essential  oil 
of  turiDcntine.  Reduce  the  copal  to  powder,  mix  the  cam- 
phor and  drying  oil,  then  heat  it  on  a  slow  fire,  add  the 
turpentine  and  strain.  As  other  soft  resins  are  sometimes 
substituted  for  mastic,  so  inferior  hard  resins  are  some- 
times employed  in  the  place  of  copal,  in  the  composition  of 
varnishes  celebrated  as  copal  varnishes.  Copal  is  difficult 
of  solution  in  turpentine  and  linseed  oils,  both  of  which 
enter  into  the  composition  of  the  ordinary  Copal  Varnishes, 
which  are  employed  by  the  coach  painter  and  afford  the 
best  varnishes  used  by  the  house  painter  and  graiuer. 
Combined,  however,  with  linseed  oil  and  oil  of  turpentine, 
copal  varnish  affords  a  vehicle  superior  in  texture,  strength, 
and  durability  to  mastic  and  its  megilp,  though  in  its  appli- 
cation it  is  a  less  attractive  instrument,  and  of  more  diffi- 


380  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  PAINTING 

cult  management.  As  copal  swells  while  dissolving,  so  its 
solutions  and  varnishes  contract,  and  consequently  crack, 
in  drying,  and  thence  linseed  oil  is  essential  to  prevent  its 
cracking.  The  mixture  of  copal  varnish  and  linseed  oil  is 
best  effected  by  the  medium  of  oil  of  turpentine,  and  for 
this   jiurpose   heat   is  sometimes   requisite. 

Iron-work,  Varnish  for.  Dissolve  in  about  2  pounds  of 
tar  oil,  1/2  pound  of  asphaltum  and  a  like  quantity  of 
pounded  resin,  mix  hot  in  an  iron  kettle,  care  being  taken 
to  prevent  any  contact  with  the  flames.  When  cold  the 
varnish  is  ready  for  use.  This  varnish  is  for  outdoor  work 
and   iron-work. 

Common  work,  Varnish  for.  Place  3  pounds  of  powdered 
resin  in  a  tin  can,  and  add  21^  pints  of  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine, shake  well,  and  allow  the  mixture  to  stand  for  a  day 
or  two,  shaking  it  occasionally.  Then  add  5  quarts  of 
boiled  oil,  shake  the  whole,  and  allow  it  to  stand  in  a  warm 
room  until  clear.  This  clear  portion  is  then  to  be  poured  off 
for  use,  and  may  be  reduced  in  consistency  by  the  addition 
of  turpentine.  This  varnish  is  intended  for  protesting  sur- 
faces against  the  effects  of  exposure  to  the  atmosphere, 
and  has  been  used  with  great  advantage  for  coating  wood 
and  iron-work. 

Defects  in  Varnishes  and  their  Remedies.  In  api^lying 
oil  varnishes  to  different  objects,  various  defects  often  make 
their  appearance,  these  are  in  many  cases  very  obscure  in 
their  origin,  although  painfully  obvious  in  their  effects. 
The  defects  may  arise  through  faults  in  making  the  var- 
nishes, through  defects  in  the  surface  of  the  objects  which 
have  been  varnished,  through  faulty  methods  of  applica- 
tion, or  through  climatic  changes.  Seeing,  therefore,  that 
there  are  so  many  factors  which  produce  defects  in  var- 
nished surfaces,  it  is  no  wonder  that  the  causes  of  such 
defects  are  obscure,  especially  as  the  varnisher  may  be  of 
an  unobservant  character  and  fail  to  notice  faults  at  the 
time   the   varnish  is   being  applied.     Cracks   and  pinholes: 


VARNISHES  381 

these  are  often  due  to  climatic  changes,  especially  liable  to 
occur  in  winter  time,  when  a  cold  day  will  follow  a  hot  or 
warm  one.  Keeping  the  object  in  a  warm  place  for  some 
time  will  tend  to  cure  this  fault,  and  take  care  that  the 
varnish  cannot  get  chilled  while  drying.  Peeling,  blistering, 
spots,  and  crawling  are  defects  which  may  be  traced  to  a 
greasy  nature  of  the  surface  on  which  the  varnish  is  ap- 
plied. This  may  be  due  to  the  use  of  bad  pinning,  paint, 
or  rubbing  the  v/ork  down  with  oily  rags,  or  to  drops  of 
oil  on  the  surface  on  which  the  varnish  is  applied,  and  not 
properly  removed  in  the  preparing  operations.  The  remedy 
consists  in  preventing  the  application  of  oily  matters  to  the 
surface,  and  to  see  that  they  are  thoroughly  removed.  Sag- 
ging: this  defect  arises  from  two  causes,  a  very  greasy 
nature  of  the  surface,  or  from  applying  the  varnish  too 
thickly.  The  varnisher  is  tempted  to  take  up  too  much 
varnish  on  his  brush,  and  unless  he  takes  care  to  spread 
this  well  he  will  leave  it  too  thick,  and  then  sagging  or 
running  down  may  occur.  If  in  the  preparatory  processes 
too  thick  a  coat  of  paint  is  put  on,  the  varnish  may  tend 
to  soften  this,  and  then  this  defect  is  liable  to  occur.  Sweat- 
ing and  blurring  may  be  due  to  defects  in  the  manufacture 
of  the  varnish,  the  gums  used  have  not  been  properly  melted 
and  too  much  of  their  volatile  constituents  left  in,  or  the 
varnish  may  have  been  sent  out  before  it  was  properly  ma- 
tured. Varnishing  on  a  damp  surface  will  also  develop 
these  defects.  Deadening  may  be  due  to  faulty  preparation 
of  the  varnish,  but  more  often  it  is  due  to  climatic  condi- 
tions, varnishing  in  too  damp  an  atmosphere,  on  damp  sur- 
faces, in  the  presence  of  deleterious  gases  and  vapors,  too 
porous  a  subject,  too  large  a  proportion  of  driers  used  in 
making  it,  all  of  which  tend  to  cause  loss  of  lustre  in  a 
varnish,  either  immediately  or  after  a  time.  It  is  difficult 
under  these  circumstances  to  point  out  a  remedy,  for  one 
will  scarcely  know  the  exact  cause  in  any  particular  case, 
and  of  course  it  is  obvious  that  the  remedy  will  vary  with 


382  CYCLOPEDIA   OP   PAINTING 

the  cause,  and  what  will  do  for  one  case  will  not  do  for 
another.  The  varnisher  should,  if  he  wants  to  produce  a 
good  job,  take  every  precaution  to  prevent  defects  arising, 
for  in  this  case  an  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  ton  of 
cure.  He  should  see  that  his  varnish  is  of  good  quality, 
that  his  cans  and  brushes  are  in  good  condition  and  clean, 
that  the  surface  he  has  to  varnish  is  in  proper  condition, 
free  from  grease,  dry,  and  having  a  smooth  surface.  He 
should  never  attempt  a  job  in  wet  or  damp  weather,  and 
he  should  take  care  that,  after  varnishing,  his  work  is  not 
exposed  to  any  bad  influences  which  will  retard  the  drying 
and  hardening  of  the  varnish. 


VARNISHING. 

Two  grades  of  varnishes  will  usually  be  required  by  the 
painter,  inside  and  outside.  That  which  is  used  outside  will 
cost  a  little  more  than  that  intended  for  the  interior,  as 
it  must  be  made  of  materials  to  resist  the  weather.  If  the 
color  of  the  work  is  dark,  oak  varnish  is  the  best  to  use, 
but  there  are  various  grades  of  pale  varnishes  suitable  for 
very  light  work,  some  can  be  obtained  which  have  very 
little  color  at  all.  A  special  grade  of  varnish  is  made  for 
application  to  wall  paper,  this,  however,  is  a  common  grade 
of  varnish,  and  is  not  recommended.  It  is  much  better  to 
pay  a  little  more  and  get  a  good  copal  varnish.  Before 
paper  is  varnished  it  is  necessary  to  give  it  two  coats  of 
size.  Concentrated  size  powder  may  be  used  for  the  pur- 
pose, two  coats  are  necessary,  so  as  to  ensure  no  portion 
of  the  work  being  missed.  If  this  is  not  done  the  varnish 
will  soak  in  the  paper  and  leave  a  nasty  black  mark. 

As  a  rule,  a  paper  wall  should  not  be  varnished.  The 
distempered  surface  of  an  ordinary  paper  looks  much  bet- 
ter, and  it  may  be  kept  quite  clean  if  it  is  frequently  brushed 
down  lightly.  Dadoes  are  used  in  halls  and  staircases  be- 
cause they  assist  in  giving  a  finished  effect  to  what  would 
otherwise  have  a  mere  bare  appearance,  and  also  because 
when  varnished  they  prevent  soiling  of  the  paper  by  dirty 
hands.  The  dado  is  twice  sized,  care  being  taken  to  apply 
the  size  a  little  above  the  edge  of  the  dado,  so  as  to  prevent 
the  varnish  running. 

The  application  of  the  varnish  to  either  paper  or  wood 
work  requires  some  care.  The  painter  is  apt  to  try  to  get 
over  the  work  too  quickly  by  taking  too  much  in  his  brush 
at  once,  and  this  is  certain  to  lead  to  nasty  running  or  tears. 
The  best  way  is  to  dip   a  little  more  than   the  tip   of  the 

383 


384  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

brush  into  the  varnish,  to  apply  it  almost  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  paint  across  the  work,  and  then  to  finish  by  lightly 
stroking  the  surface  all  in  the  same  direction  with  the  tip 
of  the  brush,  so  that  the  varnish  flows  and  the  brush  marks 
are  obliterated.  Special  brushes  are  required  for  varnish- 
ing, and  it  is  useless  to  attempt  to  do  good  work  of  this 
character  with  an  ordinary  paint  brush.  There  is  no 
eeonomj'  in  buying  a  cheap  varnish  brush.  The  work  done 
Avith  one  is  very  likely  to  be  marred  by  the  bristles  coming 
out,  and  such  tools  only  last  a  comparatively  short  time.  A 
varnish  brush  when  put  aside  for  a  day  should  be  put  in 
either  raw  linseed  oil,  or,  better  still,  in  some  of  the  same 
varnish  in  which  it  has  been  used.  It  should  be  suspended 
and  on  no  account  to  be  left  to  rest  upon  its  bristles.  When 
not  required  for  further  use  for  some  time  it  should  be 
washed  out  first  with  raw  linseed  oil,  and  then  with  tur- 
pentine, and  then  wrapped  in  paper  and-  put  away  in  a 
cool  dry  place. 

When  to  Varnish.  It  might  appear  that  it  is  unimport- 
ant when  varnish  is  applied  so  long  as  the  work  is  inside, 
and  is  not  exposed  to  showers  of  rain.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
varnish  is  the  most  susceptible  material  used  in  painting, 
and  the  better  quality  it  is  the  more  sensitive  is  its  nature. 
In  hundreds  of  cases  of  varnish  which  turned  out  badly,  it 
is  safe  to  say  that  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  the  trouble  is  to 
be  attributed  simply  to  the  state  of  the  weather.  If  var- 
nish is  applied  on  a  foggy  day,  for  instance,  it  is  almost  cer- 
tain to  bloom,  that  is,  a  dull  appearance  almost  like  the 
bloom  on  fruit  will  appear  on  the  surface.  This  is  diilicult 
to  get  rid  of,  although  a  rag  dipped  in  kerosene  oil  passed 
over  the  surface  will  often  assist.  It  sometimes  happens 
that  a  day  may  be  free  from  rain,  and  yet  a  very  bad  one 
to  do  varnishing  because  the  atmosphere  may  be  charged 
with  humidity.  A  dry  day  and  a  warm  one  is  the  best  for 
applying  varnish.  Still,  there  are  other  considerations 
which    should    not    be   overlooked.     A    hall    which    was    var- 


VARNISHING  385 

nished  showed  on  one  side  very  badly,  while  the  other  side 
was  apparently  perfect,  the  same  varnish  being  used  by  the 
same  workman.  Such  a  case  appears  to  be  somewhat  mys- 
terious, the  explanation  of  such  cases  is  probably  that  the 
weather  was  cold,  that  the  door  was  open  during  the  process 
of  varnishing-,  which  chilled  that  portion  of  the  surface 
reached  by  the  cold  air. 

Varnish  manufacturers  who  understand  quite  well  the 
nature  of  their  products  take  care  to  mature  their  varnishes 
by  storing  them  in  tanks  for  months  together,  and  in  all 
well-regulated  varnish  factories  the  temperature  of  the 
maturing  room  is  kept  uniform  the  year  round,  for  unless 
this  is  done  the  products  would  vary  greatly  in  use,  and  give 
a  great  deal  of  dissatisfaction.  It  will  be  seen  from  this 
that  in  putting  varnish  aside  it  is  necessary  to  store  it  in  a 
warm  place,  and  to  take  care  that  it  does  not  get  chilled, 
if  it  should  become  very  cold  it  is  well  to  gently  heat  it 
before  using  it.  In  jDiano  factories,  carriage  shops,  and  in 
any  other  places  where  the  varnished  surface  must  be  very 
brilliant  and  uniform,  it  is  often  the  custom  to  take  the 
most  painstaking  care  to  prevent  any  marring  of  the  var- 
nish by  cold,  draughts,  or  dust.  The  temperature  is  kept 
always  uniform  by  means  of  steam  or  hot  air  pipes,  double 
doors  and  windows  are  used,  and  sometimes  the  precautions 
taken  go  to  the  extent  that  all  the  air  entering  the  room  is 
thoroughly  strained  and  freed  from  dust.  The  workmen 
have  clothes  which  they  put  on  previous  to  entering  the 
room.  It  is  not  suggested  that  painters  should  take  any 
precautions  of  this  kind,  but  mention  is  made  of  the  subject 
here  in  order  to  impress  them  with  the  necessity  of  taking 
the  greatest  care  with  varnishing. 

There  are  two  additional  reasons  which  give  rise  to  un- 
satisfactory varnishing.  The  first  is  the  habit  of  mixing 
varnishes.  Experienced  painters  will  sometimes  assert  that 
they  can  get  a  better  result  by  mixing  two  varnishes  to- 
gether than  they  could  by  using  only  one.     There  is  some 


886  CYCLOPEDIA   OP  PAINTING 

excuse  for  the  practice  when  the  supplj'  of  a  certain  var- 
nish runs  out,  but  ordinarily  it  is  entirely  against  common 
sense.  Varnishes  are  made  for  so  great  a  variety  of  pur- 
poses that  there  is  no  necessity  to  mix  two  together.  A 
moment's  reasoning  will  make  it  clear  that  if  two  varnishes 
mixed  together  would  give  a  better  result  than  either  one 
used  separately,  that  the  varnish  manufacturers  themselves 
would  make  such  a  mixture  before  sending  the  varnish  out. 
It  is  quite  possible  that  the  ingredients  from  which  the 
varnish  are  made  would  react  detrimentally  one  on  the  other. 
It  is  therefore  strongly  advisable  for  the  painter  not  to  mix 
varnishes  under  any  circumstances. 

The  second  objectionable  practice  alluded  to  is  that  of 
thinning  the  varnish  by  adding  linseed  oil  to  it;  in  cold 
weather  varnish  sometimes  pulls,  that  is,  it  is  so  thick  that 
it  is  a  little  difficult  to  apply  without  considerable  strain 
on  the  wrist.  In  such  eases  the  workman  will  sometimes 
add  the  oil,  which  may  not  show  up  at  the  time,  but  it  is 
sure  to  eventually  prove  disastrous.  Cases  have  been  known 
where  the  painter,  to  save  himself  trouble,  has  smuggled 
in  a  small  bottle  of  linseed  oil,  and  has  added  it  sur- 
reptitiously to  the  varnish,  and  caused  a  great  deal  of  com- 
plaint to  the  manufacturers.  In  the  above  remarks  only 
turpentine  and  oil  varnishes  have  been  referred  to,  not 
spirit  varnish.  This,  however,  is  almost  invariably  mixed 
with  stain  as  far  as  the  painter's  use  is  concerned.  Under 
the  head  of  Staining  Avill  be  found  information  on  this 
subject. 

Varnishing  can  only  be  properly  done  by  means  of 
brushes  specially  made  for  the  ])urpose.  There  is  a  very 
useful  grade  of  varnish  made  which  is  known  as  rubbing 
varnish.  This  is  applied  in  the  ordinary  way,  and  is,  when 
dry,  rubbed  down  with  felt  and  water  dipped  in  powdered 
pumice  stone.  Several  coats  are  usually  given,  each  being 
rubbed   down. 


WATER  COLOR  PAINTING. 

It  is  difficult  to  give  a  list  of  the  colors  which  are  most 
serviceable  for  water  color  painting,  but  from  a  comparison 
of  those  employed  by  others,  it  would  appear  that  the  fol- 
lowing twenty-four  may  be  safely  recommended  as  being 
most  useful: 

Black  Blue,  Brown  Madder,  Brown  Pink,  Burnt  Sienna, 
Burnt  Umber,  Cadmium,  Cobalt,  Emerald  Green,  French 
Blue,  Gamboge,  Indian  Red,  Indian  Yellow,  Indigo,  Crimson 
Lake,  Lemon  Yellow,  Light  Red,  Payne's  Gray,  Prussian 
Blue,  Raw  Sienna,  Rose  Madder,  Sepia,  Vandyke  Brown, 
Vermilion,   Yellow   Ochre. 

These  colors  should  be  arranged  in  the  box  systematic- 
ally. It  will  be  found  veiy  convenient  to  place  the  yellow 
pigments  at  one  end,  the  reds  and  browns  in  the  center,  and 
the  blues  at  the  other  end. 

In  laying  on  the  colors  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  if 
two  tints  be  mixed  the  effect  will  be  different  from  that  pro- 
duced by  first  laying  on  one  and  then  the  other  above  it, 
and  if  a  transparent  color  be  placed  over  an  opaque  one, 
the  result  will  be  different  from  that  produced  if  both  be 
blended.  Thus  cobalt  and  light  red  give  a  cool  gray,  but 
cobalt  washed  over  light  red  produces  a  gray  of  an  entirely 
different    character. 

It  is  not  customary  to  put  in  the  shadows  with  neutral 
tints  before  employing  the  local  colors,  as  it  has  been  found 
that  the  method  Avhich  best  represents  the  effects  of  shade 
is  to  deaden  the  local  color  by  the  admixture  of  gray  or 
blue  tones. 

Colors  which  are  complementary  produce  harmonious  ef- 
fects when  opposed  to  each  other. 

387 


388  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  PAINTING 

Red   is    complementary    to   Green, 
Blue  "  "     Orange, 

Yellow  "  "     Purple. 

White  placed  by  the  side  of  any  color  heightens  its  in- 
tensity, while  black  similarly  used  reduces  its  power,  gray 
renders  it  more  powerful. 

Never   touch   a   color    till   it   is   thoroughly    dry;    whether 
.  this  is  the  ease  may  be  ascertained  bj^  seeing  if  the  paper 
glistens;  should  it  do  so,  it  is  unfit  to  work  upon. 

Have  plenty  of  color  in  the  brush,  and  do  not  be  afraid 
to  carry  it  boldly  up  to  the  outline. 

A  little  powdered  cuttlefish  bone  may  be  advantageously 
used  in  skies  or  distances  to  produce  a  slightly  hazy  effect. 
It  should  be  rubbed  in  with  the  finger,  and  speedily  removes 
any  irregularity  of  color. 

The  sun  should  never  be  allowed  to  shine  on  the  paper 
when  a  sketch  is  being  made,  as  the  eye  becomes  dazzled 
and  incapable  of  correctly  judging  the  colors.  The  color 
also  is  too  rapidlj'  dried,  giving  a  dirty  effect.  This  is  espe- 
cially the  case  with  large  washes. 

Depth  of  tone  should  be  produced  by  repeated  washes  of 
color.  If  the  artist  attempts  to  produce  it  by  a  single  wash, 
it  will  produce  an  effect  of  paintiness,  hardness,  and  want 
of  transparency. 

While  the  sketch  is  in  progress  it  should  be  frequently 
viewed  from  a  distance.  Many  artists  throw  the  drawing 
on  the  ground,  or  even  view  it  upside  down,  so  as  to  judge 
of  the  effect  as  a  whole,  with  reference  to  the  arrangement 
of  light  and  shade,  and  without  regard  to  the  subjects 
portrayed. 

Primary  colors  must  be  very  sparingly  introduced,  and 
broken  colors,  composed  of  various  pigments,  duly  com- 
bined, produce  very  agreeable  results,  though  it  must  be 
remembered  at  the  same  time  that  the  purest  and  freshest 
effects  result  from  the  combination  of  a  small  number  of 
pigments. 


WATER   COLOR  PAINTING  389 

Local  Color  is  the  color  of  objects  when  viewed  in  ordi- 
nary daylight,  and  comparatively  near  to  the  eye.  Local 
color  is,  of  course,  modified  by  increase  or  diminution  in 
the  brightness  of  the  light  on  the  increased  or  diminished 
distance  from  the  spectator.  Cast  shadows  are  darker  than 
the  objects  which  throw  them.  Foreground  objects  appear 
to  exhibit  the  brightest  lights,  the  most  powerful  shaded 
sides,  and  also  cast  the  strongest  shadows,  while  the  atmos- 
phere between  the  sketcher  and  the  objects  in  the  distance 
and  middle  distance  tends  to  reduce  the  value  of  those 
which  are  furthest  from  the  eye. 

Breadth  is  a  most  desirable  quality  to  be  aimed  at,  so 
that  the  lights  and  shades  may  be  massed,  and  not  cut  up 
into  small  detached  pieces. 

The  color  of  a  drawing  should  not  be  carried  in  its  full 
intensity  up  to  the  very  edge,  otherwise  the  subject  will 
appear  to  be  cut  out,  with  consequent  loss  of  atmospheric 
effect,  and  for  the  same  reason  the  principal  objects  should 
not  be  placed  too  near  the  margin,  and  lines  such  as  roads 
should  be  arranged  so  as  to  lead  the  eye  into  the  picture. 
The  area  of  washes  should  diminish  as  the  work  proceeds. 
The  general  coloring  must  not  be  darkest  in  the  immediate 
foreground,  but  nearer  to  the  middle  distance,  where  also 
the  highest  lights  should  be  placed. 

Meaning  and  decision  should  always  be  given  to  all 
strong  and  dark  touches. 

The  entire  horizon  must  never  be  allowed  to  cut  hard 
against  the  sky,  and  endeavors  ought  to  be  made  to  pro- 
duce some  appearance  of  mystery  in  every  drawing. 

Light  and  color  should  always  be  carried  through  the 
picture,  that  is,  the  sky  should  not  be  entirely  cold  whilst 
the  landscape  is  warm,  nor  vice  versa.  The  sky  color  must 
always  be  carried  into  the  landscape. 

Aerial  perspective  is  the  modification  of  light,  shade,  and 
color  which  is  caused  by  the  atmosphere,  or  more  especially 
by  vapor  in  the  form  of  mist  or  haze,  interposing  between 


390  CYCLOPEDLV  OF   PAINTING 

the  spectator  and  the  object  represented.  The  local  color 
of  objects  is  modified  by  the  intervention  of  atmosphere 
and  vapor  in  proportion  to  the  distance  of  the  objects  from 
the  eye. 

Atmospheric  effects  influence  colors  in  liii;ht  as  well  as  in 
shade,  modifying  their  distinctness,  and  producing  that  mys- 
tery  which  is  one  of  the  principal  charms  of  a  drawing. 

Aerial  perspective  is  greatly  assisted  b}'  employing  retir- 
ing colors,  such  as  blue  and  gray,  for  the  sky  and  distance 
of  a  landscape,  colors  like  madders  and  broken  reds  for  the 
middle  distance,  and  by  reserving  yellow,  red,  and  orange 
for  the  background.  It  is  also  assisted  by  carrying  over  the 
horizon  and  distance  the  colors  of  the  sky  and  clouds  in 
the  earlier  washes. 

If,  during  the  progress  of  the  drawing,  any  portions  of 
color  appear  to  stand  out  too  distinctly  or  prominently, 
thej'  may  be  taken  out  with  the  paint  rag,  so  that  they 
might  not  obtrude  or  detach  themselves  too  much  from  ob- 
jects in  the  same  plane. 

Foregrounds.  Here  all  color  sliouhl  be  more  or  less 
broken.  Trees  of  which  the  foliage  may  be  brilliant  green 
have  twigs  and  stems  of  leaves  which  are  of  a  warm  red- 
disli  brown,  the  local  colors  are  thus  modified  and  subdued 
where  otherwise  they  might  appear  crude.  Rocks  may  ap- 
pear gray,  but  lichens,  with  their  yellow  ov  rosy  tint,  warm 
some  portions  of  the  stone,  and  thus  i)rovent  the  appear- 
ance of  coldness.  Buildings  with  their  dilferent  materials, 
some  of  which  may  be  toned  by  age  and  exposure,  exhibit 
broken   tints  f)f  the  greatest  variety  and  beauty. 

The  great  difficulty  with  an  amateur  is  to  fill  up  the 
foreground  iiitclligontly  witlKMit  undue  display  of  detail. 
It  is  most  desirable  therefore  that  herbage,  heath  or  fore- 
ground plants  should  be  massed  as  fai'  as  may  be  prac- 
ticable, and  that,  in  Die  t leal  iiicnt  nf  slones,  rocks  or 
broken  ground,  e.\cessi\e  light   and  shade  should  be  avoided, 


WATER    COLOR  PAINTING  391 

SO  as  not  to  attract  the  eye  too  strongly  and  prevent  it  from 
penetrating   further   into   the   scene. 

Trees.  In  representing  these  the  local  color  should  be 
first  laid  on,  a  little  warmer  in  the  light  and  deeper  and 
cooler  on  the  shadow  side,  separating  definitely  the  lights 
from  the  shadows,  and  in  them  showing  detail.  When  the 
foliage  is  massive,  deep  shadows  must  be  added.  The  forms 
of  the  highest  lights  must  be  carefully  rendered,  and  they 
must  not  be  frittered  away  by  any  attempt  to  represent  the 
innumerable  leaves  which  go  to  make  up  the  entire  foliage. 

The  trunks  of  trees  may  be  usually  treated  with  warm 
color,  purple  lake  or  madder,  combined  if  necessary  with 
light  red  and  cobalt.  Both  trunks  and  branches  should  be 
traced  up  and  marked  wherever  visible.  The  warmth  of 
their  colors  contrasts  well  with  the  coolness  of  the  foliage, 
but  care  must  be  exercised  that  they  do  not  come  too  for- 
ward,  or  they  will  destroy  the  appearance  of  roundness. 

In  representing  trees  great  assistance  is  afforded  by  the 
modern  plan  of  taking  out.  Where  high  lights  are  required, 
vv^ater  is  ajoplied  by  the  brush  in  the  required  form,  this  is 
removed  with  blotting-paper,  and  the  color  is  then  sharply 
wiped  out  with  a  handkerchief  or  wash-leather. 

In  coloring  trees  it  must  be  remembered  that  they  rarely 
appear  as  a  true  green.  The  upper  part  of  the  leaves  reflect 
the  blue  or  gray  of  sky,  and  the  warm  tints  of  earth  are 
reflected  on  their  under  sides.  Although  the  local  color  of 
trees  in  the  foreground  may  be  fully  visible,  it  is  nnieh 
modified  in  the  middle  distance  by  their  remoteness  from  the 
spectator,  so  that  the  tone  becomes  more  gray  than  green, 
and  the  leafage  is  quite  indistinct.  In  the  extreme  distance 
neither  trunk  nor  branches  are  visible,  and  the  mass  is 
broken  by  the  shadows  occasioned  by  the  varying  positions 
of  the  trees. 

It  is  most  desirable  for  any  one  who  is  anxious  to  rep- 
resent rocks  with  accuracy  to  be  acquainted  with  the  differ- 
ent strata  and  formations  and  with  their  colors  when  they 


392  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

are  first  fractured  and  after  they  are  weathered.  Rocks, 
by  their  hardness  of  foi'm,  naturally  affect  the  character  of 
the  landscape.  Too  great  an  exhibition  of  detail  gives  the 
impression    of   smallneSs. 

However  delicate  the  tints  of  rocks  may  be,  they  should 
always  be  painted  with  more  powerful  pigments  than  those 
employed  for  the  sky  and  cloud,  otherwise  they  may  appear 
weak  and  feeble.  Variety  may  be  given  to  the  local  color 
by  taking  up  on  the  point  of  the  brush  when  charged  with 
the  compound  tints  portions  of  pure  pigment  such  as  mad- 
der, lake,  blue  or  gray. 

Water  is  most  difficult  to  represent,  and  the  suggestions 
given  for  different  tones  and  tints  may  be  varied  indefinite- 
ly. The  colors  which  appear  in  both  running  and  still 
water  are  largely  the  result  of  the  reflections  of  sky,  cloud, 
and  surrounding  objects,  but  they  are  also  produced  by  the 
light  or  shade  reflected  from  its  surface,  and  by  the  color 
of  the  objects  over  which  it  flows.  .  Smooth  water  should 
always  be  treated  broadly  and  be  painted  as  far  as  possible 
at  the  same  time,  and  with  the  same  tints,  as  the  objects 
which  are  to  be  reflected  in  it.  The  reflections,  if  too 
powerful  or  too  brilliant,  may  be  modified  by  subsequent 
glazing. 

The  surface  of  smooth  water  is  best  represented  by  work- 
ing the  tints  in  a  horizontal  direction,  but  reflections  in 
water  are  generally  perpendicular.  If  the  water  is  turbid 
the  shadows  will  be  visible  on  the  surface,  but  in  perfectly 
pure  water  they  can  hardly  be  recognized. 

The  first  tone  should  be  decidedly  graj',  as  reflecting  sky 
and  clouds,  and  on  this  may  be  worked  raw  sienna  and 
brown  madder,  while  nearer  the  eye  French  blue,  Prussian 
blue,  or  indigo  may  be  employed.  For  very  dark  parts 
brown  pink,  purple  madder,  and  Vandyke  brown  are  useful. 
On  the  sea  the  blue  should  increase  in  depth  towards  the 
horizon,  possibly,  however,  with  a  light  streak  just  where 
the  sky  meets  the  water. 


WATER   COLOR  PAlNTINO  393 

Waves  breaking  close  to  the  shore  will  be  warm  in  color, 
owing  to  the  sand  and  seaweed  underneath. 

In  the  representation  of  mountains  the  greatest  atten- 
tion should  be  paid  to  accuracy  of  outline  and  to  the  irregu- 
larities of  form,  color,  and  shade  in  the  general  contour. 
The  outlines  present  themselves  at  such  different  angles, 
and  some  will  be  in  shade  while  others  will  be  in  brilliant 
light   or   half-light. 

To  produce  the  effect  of  ruggedness  on  distant  mountain 
sides,  a  brush  with  dry  color  may  be  dragged  over  the  sur- 
face. 

Mountains  may  be  put  in  with  light  red,  and  this  should 
then  be  washed  over  with  cobalt.  The  shadows  should  be 
worked  with   a   deeper  tint  of  cobalt. 

Mists  or  Clouds  in  the  landscape  greatly  assist  the  artist 
in  producing  aerial  effects. 

In  painting  clouds  bring  up  the  form  sharply  and  de- 
cisively with  the  side  of  the  brush.  This  operation  is  of 
essential  importance. 

Plenty  of  color  should  always  be  kept  in  the  brush,  and 
care  taken  to  preserve  the  purity  of  the  tints.  When  the 
drawing  is  commenced  cadmium  or  rose  madder  may  be 
washed  very  lightly  over  the  entire  paper,  omitting  vei-y 
white  clouds  or  snow.  Clouds  differ  very  much  in  form 
according  to  the  character  of  the  landscape,  whether  flat, 
hilly,  wooded,   or  mountainous. 

To  indicate  the  direction  of  the  wind,  keep  the  edges  of 
the   clouds  ragged  on  one  side. 

Sharpness  of  form  in  painting  skies  is  needed  to  prevent 
the  appearance  of  woolliness,  and  when  the  use  of  a  brush 
with  water  is  not  sufficient  to  produce  granulation  and 
atmosphere,  the  paper  may  be  rubbed  very  carefully  with  a 
piece  of  the  finest  glass-papei',  this  removes  a  little  of  the 
surface.  Color  afterwards  applied  will  flow  freely,  and  the 
clouds  will  not  appear  to  have  hard  edges.  The  highest 
lights  may  be  taken  out  with  a  sharp  knife. 


394  CYCLOPEDIA  OP  PAINTING 

The  foregoing'  directions  are  of  the  most  practical  char- 
acter, and  in  the  general  hints  for  coloring  various  objects 
widely  different  schemes  of  color  are  suggested,  but  the 
artist's  mind  selects,  refines,  exalts  the  beautiful  features  of 
Nature,  moulding  the  plastic  substance  to  its  will,  and 
imbuing  it  with  something-  of  its  own  spirituality. 


WHEN  NOT  TO  PAINT. 

There  are  certain  times  of  the  year  when  outside  paint- 
ing should  not  be  done  if  satisfactory  results  are  to  be  ex- 
pected. If  painting  is  done  too  early  in  the  spring,  the 
surface  is  verj'  apt  to  be  full  of  frost  and  moisture  and  the 
pores  closed  through  contraction,  thus  producing  uneven 
absorption.  The  side  of  the  building  exposed  to  the  heat  of 
the  sun  will  expand  and  the  pores  open  to  a  greater  extent 
than  the  protected  side  of  the  building.  All  paints  and  oils 
are  much  heavier  in  cold  than  in  warm  weather,  and  if 
applied  under  a  low  temperature  there  is  apt  to  be  too 
heavy  a  coat  over  a  contracted  surface,  which  will  crack 
through   expansion   under  the  summer  heat. 

Do  not  paint  after  a  frost  or  in  early  spring  when  frost 
is  leaving  the  gTOund,  filling  every  jjart  of  the  building 
with  dampness.  Remember  that  heat  ascends  and  brings 
the  dampness  with  it. 

Paint  should  never  be  applied  to  extremely  hot  sur- 
faces. Paint  applied  under  extreme  heat  sets  and  dries  very 
rapidly,  and  under  the  direct  heat  of  the  sun's  rays  is  very 
apt  to  blister,  especially  on  old  work.  Remember  that  tints 
absorb  while  white  reflects  heat,  and  when  it  is  too  hot  to 
paint  with  white,  remember  it  is  also  too  hot  to  paint  with 
tints.  This  should  not  be  taken  as  an  argument  against 
summer  painting,  but  only  as  a  caution  against  working  on 
extremely  hot  surfaces. 

In  spring  painting  follow  the  sun  with  your  work.  In 
summer  painting  let  the  sun  follow  you.  Switch  your  work 
according  to  the  time  of  the  day. 

Do  not  paint  while  the  plaster  is  drying  out;  allow  time 
for  it  to  harden  through.  Remember  there  are  80  to  90 
gallons  of  water  used  in  every  100  yards  of  plastering,  most 

395 


396  CYCLOPEDIA   OP   PAINTING 

of  which  must  escape  some  place.  If  the  building  is  tightly 
closed  or  is  being  dried  by  heat,  the  moisture  will  be  largely 
driven  out  through  the  siding,  causing  the  paint  to  break 
away,  blister  or  peel. 

Do  not  paint  buildings  having  damp  basements  without 
first  removing  the  cellar  windows  and  ventilators  so  as  to 
have  a  free  circulation  of  air,  thus  drying  out  the  under 
part  of  the  building,  otherwise  the  dampness  will  go  up 
through  the  house  between  the  siding  and  plastered  wall 
and  be  attracted  to  the  surface  through  the  siding. 

Do  not  paint  near  fresh  mortar  beds.  The  heat,  mois- 
ture and  fumes  from  the  lime  will  be  absorbed  by  the  oil 
in  drying,  causing  it  to  flatten  out  and  destroying  its  life. 

Do  not  paint  in  sultry  weather  or  in  a  heavy,  wet  atmos- 
phere, as  the  moisture  from  such  conditions  penetrates  the 
surface  to  an  extent  that  it  takes  several  days  of  good  dry- 
ing weather  for  the  building  to  again  be  in  condition  to  re- 
ceive paint. 

Do  not  paint  during  or  immediately  after  a  heavy  fog 
or  dew.  In  a  few  hours  lumber  absorbs  more  dampness  in 
this  kind  of  weather  than  from  heavy  rains.  Moisture  from 
heavy  fogs  and  dews  penetrates  lumber  to  a  greater  depth 
than  from  any  other  source.  It  is  especially  important  to 
guard  against  these  conditions. 

In  most  sections  of  the  counti*}'  the  season  of  exterior 
painting  is  comparatively  short  and  it  is  a  great  temptation 
for  painters  who  have  been  obliged  to  lie  idle  all  winter 
to  start  early  spring  painting.  The  season  of  painting  can 
be  easily  extended  and  more  satisfactory  results  obtained 
by  using  judgment  as  to  the  best  time  of  the  year  to  paint  a 
building  according  to  its  surroundings.  There  are  very  few 
I)roperty  owners  who  would  not  be  willing  to  extend  the 
time  of  painting  if  shown  that  better  and  more  satisfactory 
results  can  be  obtained  by  so  doing. 

A  building  exposed  to  the  sun  and  weather  on  all  sides 
will  dry  out  much  quicker  and  be  in  condition  to  paint  much 


WHEN  NOT  TO  PAINT  397 

earlier  in  the  spring  than  one  in  a  confined  space  where 
the  sides  of  the  building  are  not  exposed  to  the  sun  or  have 
no  opportunity  to  dry  out  before  the  summer  weather  ar- 
rives. 

A  building  surrounded  by  vines  or  dense  foliage  is  in 
no  condition  to  paint  until  the  heat  of  the  summer  has 
drawn  the  moisture,  not  alone  from  the  building  but  the 
ground  surrounding  it.  The  building  may  be  so  densely 
shaded  that  it  will  be  paintable  only  at  a  time  of  the  year 
when  it  would  be  impossible  to  apply  paint  to  an  exposed 
surface  without  danger  of  its  blistering  under  the  extreme 
heat  of  the  sun. 

Under  certain  conditions,  better  results  will  be  obtained 
on  a  surface  which  is  checked,  cracked  or  shows  indications 
of  peeling,  by  allowing  the  building  to  stand  through  the 
summer  and  deteriorate  to  the  full  extent,  repainting  in  the 
fall  when  the  old,  loose  surface  can  more  easily  be  re- 
moved. 


PRACTICAL  POINTS  ON  PAINTING. 

Do  not  expect  the  paint  to  do  all  the  work.     It  won't. 

No  paint  manufacturer  can  make  one  paint  which  will 
meet  everj'  requirement. 

Judgment  must  be  used  as  to  the  surface  to  be  painted. 

Never  use  a  cheap  primer.  The  priming  coat  should  be 
of  the  best.  It  is  tlie  foundation  upon  which  all  subsequent 
coats  must  be  built. 

The  best  paint,  if  pi-oiDerly  applied  or  a^Dplied  over  a 
surface  not  in  condition  to  receive  paint,  will  not  give  good 
results. 

A  successful  j^ainter  is  one  who  makes  a  thorough  study 
of  the  work  on  hand  and  knows  what  is  necessary  to  use 
in  order  to  produce  the  best  results.  If  oil  or  turpentine  is 
needed,  he  should  know  when  and  how  much. 

Good  results  can  not  be  obtained  on  poor  lumber. 

Moisture  is  the  bane  of  the  painter  and  paint  manufac- 
turer. Possibly  more  trouble  can  be  traced  to  moisture  than 
to  any  other  cause  of  paint  going  wrong. 

Paint  will  blister,  peel  and  scale  if  the  surface  painted 
contains  moisture. 

Moisture  is  always  present  in  improperly  seasoned  or 
green  lumber.  It  is  often  present  because  of  defective  win- 
dow casings,  leaky  down  spouts  and  freshly  plastered  walls. 

It  is  important  that  the  foundation  should  have  ventila- 
tors or  windows,  so  that  there  will  be  a  free  circulation  of 
air  underneath  the  buildings  to  carry  off  the  dampness.  If 
this  precaution  is  not  taken,  the  dampness  will  go  up 
through  the  space  between  the  plastering  and  siding  and 
the  sun  and  warm  air  will  draw  it  through  to  the  outside, 
causing  the  paint  to  blister,  peel  and  scale. 

Mildew  is  another  serious  trouble.  This  is  a  vegetable 
growth  and  is  always   a  sure   indication  of  dampness. 

398 


PRACTICAL   POINTS   ON    PAINTING  399 

Do  not  be  in  a  hurry  with  the  work.  Do  not  apply  the 
paint  too  heavily. 

A  well-brushed-out  coat  of  the  proper  consistency  and 
plenty  of  time  allowed  for  its  hardening  through  will  more 
than  repay  in  the  after  effects  for  the  time  spent. 

There  is  a  difference  between  paint  drying  and  harden- 
ing. Paint  may  dry  in  a  few  hours,  but  takes  days  to 
harden. 

Light  and  air  are  essential  to  the  proper  diying  of  paint. 

With  inside  painting,  do  not  tightly  close  the  room  and 
expect  the  paint  to  dry.     It  won't. 

Good  results  can  not  be  had  on  an  old  surface  unless  it 
is  put  in  proper  condition  to  receive  paint  and  the  paint 
prepared  and  applied  according  to  the  condition  of  the 
surface. 

Paint  when  struck  with  frost  before  it  is  dry  wrinkles 
and  loses  its  gloss. 

Heavy  dews  on  paint  not  dry  also  destroj'  the  gloss. 

Thei'e  are  certain  times  of  the  year  when  outside  painting 
should  not  be  done  if  satisfactory  results  are  to  be  expected. 

Do  not  paint  too  early  in  the  spring,  as  the  surface  is  very 
apt  to  be  full  of  frost  and  moisture. 

More  complaints  of  peeling  can  be  traced  to  early  spring 
painting  than  to  painting  done  at  any  other  time  of  the 
year. 

All  paints  and  oils  are  much  heavier  in  cold  than  in  warm 
weather.  If  applied  in  a  low  temperature,  there  is  apt  to 
be  too  heavy  a  coating. 

Painting  should  never  be  done  in  extremely  hot  weather. 

Better  and  more  uniform  results  can  be  obtained  if  the 
full  amount  of  paint  required  for  each  coat  is  mixed  at  one 
time. 

Prevent  the  paint  from  skinning  over  as  much  as  possible 
by  keeping  the  mixing  keg  covered  when  not  in  use.  The 
formation  of  skin  robs  the  paint  of  its  drier. 


400  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

Paint  must  be  kept  of  a  uniform  consistency  to  give  uni- 
form results. 

Where  japan  is  used,  always  get  the  best  and  use  it 
sparingly.  Never  add  japan  last  or  after  the  mixture  has 
been  thinned  down. 

An  excess  of  japan  will  keep  the  paint  from  hardening 
and  make  spongy  work. 

There  are  very  few  exceptions  to  the  statement  that 
boiled  linseed  oil  should  never  be  used  for  undercoatings. 

Always  use  pure  raw  linseed  oil  for  reducing  paints.  In- 
sist on  having  the  best.  See  that  it  bears  the  brand  of  some 
reputable  oil  crusher. 

There  are  no  substitutes  for  linseed  oil. 

An  excess  of  oil  in  the  middle  coat  on  new  work  and  first 
coat  on  old  work  will  retard  the  hardening  and  cause  the  fin- 
ishing coat  to  flatten  out,  also  very  apt  to  cause  blistering. 

Tacky  Paint.  This  is  more  often  caused  through  im- 
proper application  of  the  undercoats  than  through  anj'  fault 
of   the   paint. 

Paint,  varnish,  or  a  similar  product  applied  over  a  glossy 
surface  or  a  surface  which  is  not  hard  dry  is  much  more 
likely  to  remain  tacky  than  if  applied  over  a  thoroughly 
dry,  half  flat  or  flat  surface. 

Some  paint  pigments  are  natural  dr3'ers,  while  others  are 
non-dryers.  The  non-drying  pigments,  when  used  in  paint- 
ing, if  not  properly  prepared  and  applied  over  a  suitable 
surface,  are  very  apt  to  dry  tacky  and  remain  so. 

Varnish  added  to  oil  paint  will  cause  tlie  paint  to  remain 
tacky.  Colors  in  oil  mixed  with  varnish  will  not  harden, 
but  soften  under  exposure  to  heat. 

Always  prime  a  building  before  the  plasterer  commences 
his  work. 

Never  second  or  third  coat  a  building  while  the  plaster 
is  drying  out.  A  building  should  never  be  tightly  closed 
while  the  plaster  is  drying  out. 


USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Alabaster,  To  Clean.  Make  a  paste  with  quick-lime  and 
water,  sjiread  this  well  over  the  discolored  article,  and 
leave  it  on  for  about  twenty-four  hours,  then  remove  with 
soap  and  water,  applying  some  friction  on  parts  which  are 
worse  than  others.  Alabaster,  if  not  too  much  discolored, 
may  be  cleansed  with  a  strong  lye  of  soap  and  water,  or, 
the  superficial  dirt  and  grease  having  been  removed,  it  may 
be  washed  with  diluted  muriatic  acid. 

Glass,  To  Remove  Grease  From.  Dissolve  carbonate  of 
soda  in  water,  in  the  proportion  of  1  of  the  former  to  10 
of  the  latter,  and  let  the  liquid  boil  in  a  clean  untinned 
iron  pot.  Slake  8  parts  of  quick-lime  in  a  covered  vessel, 
and  add  the  hydrate  thus  formed  to  the  boiling  liquid, 
stirring  it  meanwhile.  Great  care  must  be  exercised  in 
using  this  caustic  solution,  which  must  not  be  allowed  to 
touch  the  hands,  the  glass  must  therefore  be  dipped  in  it 
by  the  aid  of  tongs  or  pliers.  When  the  grease  is  dissolved 
the  glass  is  to  be  well  brushed  and  subsequently  rinsed  in 
water. 

Gold  Size.  Heat  Yo  pound  linseed  oil  in  a  flask,  and 
gradually  add  2  ounces  of  powdered  gum  animi,  stimng 
tlie  oil  continuously  until  the  whole  of  the  gum  is  dissolved. 
Continue  boiling  until  the  mixture  becomes  a  little  thicker 
than  tar,  when  it  must  be  strained  through  a  coarse  cloth. 
Previous  to  use,  it  is  to  be  ground  up  with  suflBcient  ver- 
milion to  render  it  opaque,  and  turpentine  must  be  added 
ill  order  that  it  may  work  freely. 

The  following  method  of  making  gold  size  is  derived 
from  a  verj'  old  source,  and  is  given  in  the  words  of  the 
original : 

401 


402  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  PAINTING 

To  Make  Gold  Size.  Take  Gum  Animi,  Asphaltum,  of 
each  1  ounce,  minium  litharge  of  gold  and  umber,  of  each 
%  ounce,  reduce  all  into  a  very  'fine  powder,  and  add  to 
them,  of  linseed  oil  4  ounces,  of  drying  oil  8  ounces,  digest 
over  a  gentle  fire  that  does  not  flame,  so  that  it  may  only 
simmer  and  bubble  up,  but  not  boil,  for  fear  it  should  run 
over  and  set  the  house  on  fire.  Keep  constantly  stirring 
with  a  stick  till  all  the  ingredients  are  dissolved  and  incor- 
porated, and  do  not  leave  off  stirring  it  till  it  becomes 
thick  and  ropy,  and  is  boiled  enough,  let  it  stand  till  it  is 
almost  cold,  and  then  strain  it  through  a  coarse  linen  cloth, 
and  keep  it  for  use.  To  prepare  for  use,  mix  with  oil  of 
turpentine  during  heating,  and  strain  again,  add  vermilion, 
and  thin  as  required  with  turpentine. 

Iron-work,  Paints  for  preserving.  Plumbago  and  hot  coal 
tar. 

Equal  parts  of  asphaltum  and  rosin  dissolved  in  common 
turpentine. 

For  machinery,  dissolve  2  pounds  india-rubber,  4  pounds 
resin,  2  pounds  shellac  in  5  gallons  of  benzine.  This  may 
be  used  with  any  other  paint  as  a  vehicle. 

Wrought-iron  bridges,  are  painted  with  white  lead  as 
follows:  The  iron-work  is  first  made  clean  by  scrubbing 
and  brushing  it  with  wire  brushes,  this  done,  all  the  cav- 
ities and  fissures  are  filled  up  with  a  putty  of  litharge, 
linseed  oil,  varnish,  and  white  lead.  This  filling  being  dry, 
brushing  is  repeated.  Afterwards  paint  is  applied  consist- 
ing of  300  pounds  of  white  lead,  10  gallons  of  crude  linseed 
oil,  and  li/4  gallons  of  turpentine.  This  paint  is  repeated 
when  the  previous  coat  is  sufficiently  dry,  and  finally  evenly 
overspread  with  white  sand.  Galvanizing  is  also  employed 
to  prevent  rusting.  A  galvanizing  paint  consists  chiefly  of 
zinc  powder  and  oil  varnish.  Rusting  is  further  prevented 
by  rubbing  the  red  hot  iron  with  wax,  tallow,  pitch,  or  coal 
tar.  Rubbing  with  heavy  petroleum  is  also  well  adapted 
for  keeping  iron-work  clean. 


USEFUL  INFORMATION  403 

Marble,  Jasper,  Porphyry.  To  clean.  Mix  quick-lime 
with  very  strong  soap-lees  until  the  liquid  is  about  the 
consistence  of  milk,  paint  it  over  the  substance  to  be 
cleaned,  and  leave  it  on  for  twenty-four  hours,  after  which 
it  is  to  be  washed  off,  and  the  stone  is  to  be  well  rubbed 
with  putty-powder  and  olive  oil. 

Marble  which  has  not  been  tarnished  by  exposure  to  the 
open  air  may  be  well  washed  with  potash-water,  and  sub- 
sequently with  water  with  which  a  small  quantity  of  hydro- 
chloric  acid   has   been   mixed. 

Mix  soda,  pumice  stone,  and  finely  powdered  chalk,  in 
proportions  of  two  parts  of  the  former  to  one  each  of  the 
latter,  pass  these  ingredients  through  a  fine  sieve,  and  mix 
them  with  water  so  as  to  form  a  paste  of  some  consistency. 
This  paste  on  being  well  rubbed  into  the  marble  will  re- 
move the  stains,  the  marble  is  then  to  be  washed  with  soap 
and  water,  when  a  beautiful  polish  will  be  produced. 

Clean  with  diluted  muriatic  acid,  or  soap  and  warm  vine- 
gar. Dissolve  IV2  pounds  of  potash  in  a  gallon  of  watei', 
add  1  pound  of  virgin  wax,  and  let  the  whole  boil  for  half 
an  hour,  then  allow  it  to  cool,  when  a  cake  of  wax  will  be 
formed  on  the  surface.  This  cake  is  to  be  ground  up  in  a 
marble  mortar,  soft  water  being  added,  until  a  smooth  paste 
is  formed,  and  this  laid  on  the  marble,  and  well  rubbed  with 
a  piece  of  fla~nnel  when  dry,  will  produce  a  good  polish. 

Paint,  Anti-corrosive.  Take  equal  parts  by  weight  of 
whiting  and  white  lead,  and  half  the  quantity  of  fine  sand, 
gravel,  or  road-dust,  and  a  sufficient  quantity  of  coloring 
matter.  This  mixture  is  made  in  water,  and  can  be  used  as 
a  distemper-coloi',  but  it  is  more  durable  to  dry  it  in  cakes 
or  powder  after  mixing,  and  then  use  it  as  an  oil-paint  by 
grinding  it  again  in  linseed  oil.  The  proportion  of  oil 
recommended  for  this  purpose  is  12  parts  by  weight  of  lin- 
seed oil,  1  boiled  linseed  oil,  and  3  sulphate  of  lime,  well 
mixed.  One  gallon  of  this  prepared  oil  is  used  to  7  pounds 
of  the  powder. 


404  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

Paint,  Economical.  Skim  milk  2  parts,  fresh  slaked  lime 
8  ounces,  linseed  oil  6  ounces,  white  Burgundy  pitch  2 
ounces,  Spanish  white  3  pounds.  The  lime  to  be  slaked  in 
water  exposed  to  the  air,  mixed  in  one-fourth  of  the  milk. 
The  oil  in  which  the  pitch  is  previously  dissolved  to  be 
added  a  little  at  a  time,  then  the  rest  of  the  milk,  and  after- 
wards the  Spanish  white.  This  quantity  is  sufficient  for 
twenty-seven   square   yards,   two   coats. 

Paint  for  Wire-work.  Boil  good  linseed  oil  with  as  much 
litharge  as  will  make  it  of  the  consistency  to  be  laid  on 
with  the  brush,  add  lamp  black  at  the  rate  of  1  part  to 
every  10  by  weight  of  the  litharge,  boil  three  hours  over  a 
gentle  fire.  The  first  coat  should  be  thinner  than  the  fol- 
lowing ones. 

Paint,  To  remove  old.  Wet  the  place  with  naphtha,  re- 
peating as  often  as  is  required,  but  frequently  one  applica- 
tion will  dissolve  the  paint.  As  soon  as  it  is  softened,  rub 
the  surface  clean.  Chloroform,  mixed  with  a  small  quan- 
tity of  spirit  ammonia,  has  been  very  successfully  em- 
ployed in  removing  the  stains  of  dry  paint  from  wood,  silk, 
and  other  substances. 

Paint,  To  destroy.  Mix  one  part  by  weight  of  pearlash 
with  three  parts  quick-stone  lime,  by  slaking  the  lime  in 
water  and  then  adding  the  pearlash,  making  the  mixture 
about  the  consistency  of  paint.  Lay  the  above  over  the 
whole  of  the  work  required  to  be  cleaned  with  an  old  brush, 
let  it  remain  fourteen  or  sixteen  hours,  when  the  paint  can 
be  easily  scraped  off. 

Paint,  To  remove.  In  those  cases  where  it  is  requisite  to 
remove  painting  entirely  from  its  ground,  it  is  usual  to 
resort  to  mechanical  scraping,  or  to  the  very  dangerous 
operation  of  setting  fire  to  the  painted  surface  immediately 
after  washing  it  over  with  oil  of  turpentine,  called  tui*ps, 
for  burning  off  the  paint  from  the  old  disfigured  work, 
an  operation  which  may  be  safely  and  more  easily  accom- 
plished by  laying  on  a  thick  wash  or  plaster  of  fresh-slaked 


USEFUL  INFORMATION  405 

quick-lime,  mixed  with  soda,  which  may  be  washed  off  with 
Avater  the  following  day,  carrying  with  it  the  paint,  grease, 
and  other  foulness,  so  that,  when  clean  and  dry,  the  paint- 
ing may  be  renev/ed  as  on  fresh  work. 

Paint,  Metallic.  Break  common  resin  into  dust  or  small 
pieces,  and  dissolve  in  benzine  or  turpentine  until  the  solu- 
tion acquires  the  consistency  of  syruio  or  molasses,  or,  equal 
parts  of  each  of  the  above  hydrocarbons,  and  any  other 
hydrocarbon  that  will  dry  and  combine  with  drying  oils, 
can  be  used  instead  of  turpentine  or  benzine.  "When  the 
solution  is  complete,  it  is  gTadually  added  to  oxide  of  zinc, 
which  has  previously  been  made  into  a  paste  with  boiled 
linseed  oil,  until  the  whole  mixture  acquires  the  consistency 
of  a  paint  suitable  for-use.  A  white  paint  of  a  durable  and 
glossy  character  is  thus  produced.  Other  pigments,  such  as 
sulphate  of  barj'tes,  oxide  of  iron,  Brunswick  green,  or  red 
lead,  can  be  added  to  make  any  desired  color  of  paint.  One 
great  advantage  of  its  use  is  its  effectual  resistance  to  heat 
and  moisture.  It  never  blisters  or  cracks  even  under  the 
hottest  sun  or  in  the  most  inclement  weather. 

Painted  work,  To  clean.  When  painted  wainscot  or  other 
wood  requires  cleaning,  soft  soap  and  fuller's  earth  should 
be  applied  with  a  flannel.  The  work  should  proceed  from 
the  top  downwards,  and  the  water  should  be  prevented  from 
running  on  the  clean  parts  as  much  as  possible,  or  marks 
will  be  made  which  will  appear  after  the  whole  is  finished. 
One  person  should  dry  with  a  soft  rag  as  fast  as  another 
has  scoured  off  the  dirt  and  washed  off  the  soap.  When 
the  paint  is  soiled  in  parts  only,  and  does  not  require  a 
general  cleaning,  dip  a  sponge  or  a  piece  of  flannel  into  soda 
and  water,  wash  it  off  quickl}^,  and  dry  immediately,  or  the 
soda  will  eat  off  the  paint.  When  paint  simply  requires 
to  have  the  dust  removed  from  it,  a  cloth  should  not  be 
used,  but,  after  blowing  off  the  loose  particles  with  a  pair 
of  bellows,  the  operation  should  be  completed  with  a  long- 


406  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

haired  brush.  With  care,  paint  will  look  well  for  a  long 
time  if  guarded  from  the  infiuenee  of  the  sun. 

Painting,  Effect  of,  on  Wood.  It  is,  of  course,  generally 
understood  that  the  main  puriiose  of  painting  wood  is  to 
preserve  it  from  decay,  but  this  effect  is  only  to  be  ex- 
pected when  the  wood  is  previously  quite  drj',  if  this  is  not 
the  case,  the  painting  is  injurious  instead  of  being  beneficial 
to  the  timber.  There  is  a  cause  which  affects  all  wood 
most  materially,  which  is  the  application  of  paint,  tar,  or 
pitch  before  the  wood  has  been  thoroughly  dried.  The 
nature  of  these  bodies  j^revents  all  evaporation,  and  eon- 
fines  the  internal  moisture,  which  is  the  cause  of  sudden 
decay.  Both  oak  and  fir  posts  may  be  brought  into  a  pi'e- 
mature  state  of  decay,  by  their  having  been  painted  prior 
to  a  due  evaporation  of  their  moisture,  and  painting  affords 
no  protection  to  timber  against  dry  rot.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  doors,  pews,  and  carved  work  of  many  old  churches 
have  never  been  painted,  and  yet  are  often  found  to  be  per- 
fectly sound,  after  having  existed  for  centuries.  Painted 
floor-cloths  are  very  injurious  to  wooden  floors,  and  soon 
produce  rottenness  in  the  floors  that  are  covered  with  them, 
as  the  painted  cloth  prevents  the  access  of  atmospheric  air, 
and  retains  whatever  dampness  the  boards  may  absorb,  and 
therefore  soon  causes  decay,  carpets  are  not  so  injurious, 
but   still   assist   in   retarding  fi-ee   evaporation. 

Putty,  To  make.  Pulverize  the  required  quantity  of  whit- 
ing, which  has  been  siDeeially  dried,  and  pass  through  a 
sieve  of  about  forty-five  holes  to  the  square  inch,  mix  the 
powder  with  as  much  raw  linseed  oil  as  will  form  it  into  a 
stiff  paste,  which  should  be  well  kneaded  and  left  for  a  day 
or  so,  it  must  then  be  worked  up,  a  small  quantity  at  a 
time,  so  that  it  may  be  rendered  quite  smooth,  and  that 
balls  of  the  dry  whiting  powder  may  not  be  imprisoned 
in  different  parts  of  the  putty,  for  these  would  make  their 
appearance  when  the  putty  was  being  used,  and  would  of 
course   injure   the   adhesiveness   of   the   composition.     Putty 


USEIFUL   INFORMATION  407 

should  be  kept  in  an  earthenware  pan  covered  with  a  wet 
cloth.  Putty  which  has  become  hardened  may  be  made 
again  fit  for  use  by  warming  and  beating  it  up,  and  knead- 
ing it  whilst  in  that  condition.  For  particular  pur- 
poses, as  for  fanlights,  iron-framed  greenhouses,  and  other 
places  where  the  lap  or  hold  is  very  narrow,  a  little  white 
lead  may  with  advantage  be  added.  To  color  putty,  mix 
red  ochre,  lamp  black,  or  other  color  with  the  whiting. 

Putty,  To  soften.  Slake  some  quick  stone  lime  in  water,  and 
add  one-third  of  the  quantity  of  pearlash,  make  the  mixture 
about  the  thickness  of  paint.  Apply  it  with  a  brush  to  the 
putty  on  both  sides  of  the  glass,  and  leave  it  on  for  a  day 
or  so,  the  putty  will  then  have  become  so  softened  that 
it  may  easily  be  removed  with  a  glazier's  knife,  and  the 
pane  of  glass  may  then  be  taken  out. 

Size,  To  make.  Practically,  size  is  merely  glue  so  much 
diluted  with  water  that  it  does  not  for  a  very  long  time 
harden  in  the  mass,  but  preserves  a  jellified  condition,  and 
is  thus  sold  in  barrels.  A  better  kind  is  however  supplied, 
made  into  very  thin  square  cakes  like  glue,  which  is  prin- 
cipally used  for  sizing  wood  which  has  been  stained,  or  for 
i-efined  purposes.  Parchment  size  is  the  best  for  distem- 
per colors,  and  is  made  in  the  following  manner:  Place 
a  quantity  of  parchment  cuttings  in  an  iron  kettle,  cover 
them  with  water,  and  allow  them  to  soak  thoroughly,  from 
twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours  will  be  required  for  this 
purpose,  and  should  the  water  have  been  absorbed,  more 
must  be  added.  The  whole  is  then  to  be  boiled  for  about 
six  hours,  during  which  the  scum  which  rises  must  be  re- 
moved. It  is  afterwards  to  be  strained  through  a  coarse 
cloth.  Size  prepared  in  the  following  manner  will  keep  good 
for  several  weeks:  Dissolve  3  or  4  ounces  of  alum  in  boil- 
ing water,  and  add  the  solution  to  every  pailful,  boil  and 
strain  the  size  a  second  time,  and  set  in  a  cool  place. 

Size,  Glove-leather.  Take  1/2  pound  of  the  cuttings  of 
white   glove-leather,  put   them   into   water  and   allow   them 


408  CYCLOPEDIA   OF  PAINTING 

to  steep  for  about  twelve  hours,  add  about  6  quarts  of 
water,  and  allow  the  mixture  to  boil  down  to  1  quart,  strain, 
and  allow  to   cool. 

Smell  of  Paint,  To  get  rid  of.  Place  a  vessel  full  of 
lighted  charcoal  in  the  middle  of  the  room,  and  throw  on  it 
two  or  three  handfuls  of  Juniper  berries,  shut  the  windows, 
the  chimney,  and  the  door,  twenty-four  hours  afterwards 
the  room  may  be  opened,  when  it  will  be  found  that  the 
sickly  and  unwholesome  smell  will  have  left.  The  smoke 
of  the  Juniper  berries  possesses  this  advantage,  that  should 
anything  be  left  in  the  room,  such  as  tapestry,  it  will  not 
be  in   any  way  injured. 

Plunge  a  handful  of  hay  into  a  pail  of  water,  and  let  it 
stand  in  the  newly  painted  room. 

Fill  three  or  four  tubs  with  about  eight  gallons  of  water, 
and  an  ounce  of  vitriol,  and  place  them  in  the  newly  painted 
room  near  the  wainscot.  The  water  will  absorb  the  ef- 
fluvia from  the  paint  in  about  three  days,  but  it  should  be 
renewed  each  day  during  that  time. 

Soft  Putty.  This  is  made  of  whiting  and  boiled  linseed 
oil,  with  white  lead  in  the  proportion  of  one-tenth  of  the 
whiting,  a  small  quantity  of  salad  oil  is  then  to  be  added 
in  order  to  prevent  the  white  lead  from  hardening  and 
cracking  off,  as  common  putty  often  does  in  certain  situa- 
tions. 

Varnish,  Green  transparent.  Thin  some  copal  varnish 
with  turpentine,  grind  well  together  etjual  quantities  of 
Chinese  blue  and  chromate  of  potash,  and  mix  them  thor- 
oughly with  the  diluted  varnish. 

The  precise  shade  of  green  may  be  varied  by  the  differ- 
ent proportions  in  which  the  Chinese  blue  and  chromate  of 
potash  are  used. 

For  Venetian  blinds,  give  the  wood  a  couple  of  coats  of 
light  lead-color,  and  allow  it  to  become  perfectly  hard. 
Grind  some  dry  white  lead  in  spirit  of  turpentine,  and  add 
to  it  one-third  of  its  quantity  of  verdigris  or  navy  green, 


USEFUL  INFORMATION  409 

which  has  previously  been  ground  in  oil,  to  this  mixture 
add  sufficient  common  oak  varnish  to  bind  the  color.  Two, 
or  if  required,  three  coats  of  this  varnish  are  now  to  be 
applied,  and  as  it  dries  very  rapidly  the  whole  may  be 
finished   in    a   few   hours. 

Varnish,  To  remove,  from  Pictures  or  Fine  Work.  By 
friction,  if  it  be  a  soft  varnish  such  as  that  of  mastic,  the 
simple  rubbing  of  the  finger  ends,  with  or  without  water, 
may  be  found  sufficient,  a  portion  of  the  resin  attaches 
itself  to  the  fingers,  and  by  continuous  rubbing  removes 
the  varnish.  If  it  be  hard  varnish  such  as  that  of  copal 
which  is  to  be  removed,  friction  with  sea  or  river  sand,  the 
particles  of  which  have  a  rotundity  that  prevents  their 
scratching,  will  accomplish  the  purpose.  The  solvents  com- 
monly employed  for  removing  varnish  are  the  several  alka- 
lies, alcohol  and  essential  oils  used  simply  or  combined.  Of 
the  alkalies,  the  volatile  in  its  mildest  state,  or  carbonate 
of  ammonia,  is  the  only  one  which  can  be  safely  used  in 
removing  dust,  oil,  and  varnish  from  a  picture,  which  it 
does  powerfully,  it  must,  therefore,  be  much  diluted  with 
water,  according  to  the  power  required,  and  employed  with 
judgment  and  caution,  stopping  its  action  at  the  proper 
time  by  the  use  of  pure  water  and  a  sponge.  A  thick  coat 
of  wet  fuller's  earth  may  be  employed  with  safety,  and, 
after  remaining  on  the  paint  a  sufficient  time  to  soften  the 
extraneous  surface,  may  be  removed  by  washing.  Both 
pictures  and  gilding  have  been  restored  to  their  original 
beauty  by  the   ajiplication  of  wet   clay. 

Worm  in  Wood-work,  Prevention  of.  The  ravages  of 
worms  and  insects  are  among  the  principal  causes  of  the 
destruction  of  timber.  Some  woods  are  more  subject  than 
others  to  be  destroyed  by  them,  such  as  alder,  beech,  birch, 
and  in  general  all  soft  woods  of  which  the  juices  are  of 
a  saccharine  nature.  Against  the  common  worm,  oil  of 
spike  is  said  to  be  an  excellent  remedy;  and  oil  of  juniper, 
or  of  turpentine,  will  prevent  them  in  some  degi'ee.    A  free 


410  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  PAINTING 

use  of  linseed  oil  is  a  good  preservative,  and  so  is  a  cover- 
ing of  copal  varnish,  but  these  can  be  applied  to  small 
articles  onlj".  Another  application  is  sulphur  which  has 
been  immersed  in  nitric  acid  and  distilled  to  dryness,  which, 
being  exposed  to  the  air,  dissolves  into  an  oil,  the  parts  to 
be  secured  from  the  worm  are  to  be  anointed  with  this  oil, 
wliieh  does  not  give  an  unpleasant  odor  to  the  wood.  Lime 
is  an  excellent  prevention  against  the  worm,  and  sap-wcjod 
should  alwaj's  be  impregnated  with  it  when  used  in  a  dry 
situation.  As  worms  do  not  attack  bitter  woods,  soaking 
wood  in  an  infusion  of  quassia  has  been  tried,  and  is  said 
to  have  the  desired  effect. 

Zinc,  To  prepare  for  painting.  In  64  parts  of  water,  dis- 
solve 1  part  of  chloride  of  copper,  1  of  nitrate  of  copper, 
and  1  of  sal  ammoniac,  and  add  1  part  of  commercial 
hydrochloric  acid,  brush  the  zinc  over  with  this  mixture, 
which  gives  it  a  deep  black,  leave  it  to  dry  for  twenty- 
four  hours,  when  any  oil  color  will  firmly  adhore  to  it,  and 
withstand  both  heat  and  damp. 

A  Useful  Cement.  Alum  and  plaster  of  Paris,  mixed 
with  water  and  used  in  the  liquid  state,  form  a  hard  com- 
position and   a   useful  cement. 

Barytes  in  Chrome  Yellow.  The  detection  of  baiytes  in 
chrome  yellow  is  a  very  simple  matter,  and  as  it  is  a  very 
commonly  employed  adulterant,  the  following  may  be  found 
useful :  Put  a  small  portion  of  the  yellow  into  a  test  tube, 
add  a  sufficient  quantity  of  concentrate  muriatic  acid,  and 
boil.  The  yellow  is  almost  immediately  resolved  into  a 
white  semi-crystalline  chloride  of  lead  and  a  green  solution 
of  chloride  of  chromium.  A  large  amount  of  water  is 
added  to  the  test,  which  is  again  boiled.  If  there  is  no 
barytes  pre.sent,  a  clear  solution  will  be  formed,  as  chloride 
of  lead  is  soluble  in  boiling  water.  The  barytes,  if  pres- 
ent, will  be  left  behind  as  a  heavy,  fine  white  deposit,  which 
may  be  washed  by  repeatedly  boiling  with  water. 

Bathrooms.     These  shonld  be   warm  in  coloring,  to  assist 


USEFUL  INFOBMATION  411 

a  feeling  of  warmth  during  the  winter  toilet,  and  they 
should  of  course  be  washable  in  every  part,  as  otherwise 
the  steam  from  hot  baths  may  destroy  the  work  in  a  very 
short   time. 

Black  Varnish  for  Ironwork.  The  following  is  recom- 
mended as  a  good  recipe  for  a  black  varnish  for  ironwork : 
Take  y2  pound  of  asphaltum  and  ^^4  pound  of  resin,  and 
dissolve  in  1  pint  of  turpentine,  rub  2  ounces  of  lamp-black 
with  a  little  linseed  oil  to  form  a  paste,  and  stir  this  into 
the  first-mentioned  ingredients.  The  mixture,  now  being 
ready,  can  be  painted  on  any  ironwork  with  a  soft  flat 
brush. 

Boiling  Points.  Mercury,  630°  Fahrenheit,  linseed  oil, 
266°  Fahrenheit,  olive  oil,  412°  Fahrenheit,  sulphuric  acid, 
410°  Fahrenheit,  oil  turpentine,  315°  Fahrenheit,  water, 
212°  Fahrenheit,  and  alcohol,  174°  Fahrenheit. 

Carver's  Polish.  In  1  pint  of  spirits  of  wine  dissolve  2 
ounces  of  seedlac  and  2  ounces  of  white  resin.  The  prin- 
cipal use  of  this  polish  is  for  the  carved  parts  of  cabinet 
work,  such  as  standards,  pillars,  and  claws.  It  should  be 
laid  on  warm,  and  if  the  work  can  also  be  warmed  at  the 
time  it  will  be  still  better.  All  moisture  and  dampness 
should  be  carefully  excluded. 

Cement  for  Marble.  Stir  to  a  thick  batter  with  silicate 
of  soda,  12  parts  Portland  cement,  6  parts  slaked  lime,  6 
parts  fine  lead,  1  part  infusorial  earth.  This  is  very  excel- 
lent for  marble  and  alabaster.  The  cemented  objects  need 
not  be  heated.  After  twenty-four  hours  the  fracture  is 
firm,  and  the  place  can  with  difficulty  be  found. 

Cement  Mortar.  About  8  parts  of  furnace  ashes,  slag,  or 
coke,  4  parts  of  slaked  lime,  and  1  of  clay,  are  taken  and 
mixed  dry,  so  as  to  form  a  cement,  which,  on  mixing  with 
water,  sets  in  the  ordinary  way.  The  proportions  of  the 
materials  may  be  varied  so  as  to  produce  either  an  aerial 
or  hj-draulic  cement. 

Cleaning  Paint.     Provide  a  plate  with  some  of  the  best 


41li  CYCLOPEDIA   OF  PAINTING 

wliitinu:  to  be  had,  and  have  ready  some  clean  warm  water 
and  a  piooo  of  Hannel,  which  dip  into  the  water  and  squeeze 
nearly  dry,  then  take  as  much  whitinj,^  as  will  adhere  to  it, 
api)ly  it  to  the  painted  surface,  when  a  little  rubbing  will 
instantly  remove  any  dirt  or  grease.  After  which  wash 
the  part  well  with  clean  water,  rubbing  it  dry  with  a  soft 
chamois  leather.  Paint  thus  cleaned  looks  as  well  as  when 
first  laid  on,  without  injury  to  the  most  delicate  colors. 
It  is-  far  better  than  using  soap,  and  does  not  require  more 
than  half  the  time  and  labor. 

Durable  Colors.  One  of  the  necessary  qualifications  of 
(he  painter  is  the  knowledge  of  the  colors  that  will  stand 
the  sun  aiui  weather.  The  manufactured  chemical  colors 
are  generally  not  very  durable,  and  are  therefore  not  very 
suitable  for  outside  work.  The  chrome  yellows,  chrome 
greens,  and  Prussian  blues  are  fugitive,  whether  used  alone 
or  mixed.  A  combination  of  two  colors  of  durable  nature 
is  often  subject  to  change  of  tone.  Of  the  more  durable 
colors  for  external  use,  the  ochres,  Indian  and  Venetian 
reds,  burnt  and  raw  umbers,  and  burnt  and  raw  siennas  may 
be  mentioned.  Zinc  white,  though  of  less  body  than  white 
lead,  is  more  delicate  and  durable,  and  should  always  be 
used  in  place  of  white  lead  at  the  seashore,  where  it  is 
especially  durable.  The  action  of  the  salt  air  injures  the 
lead.  The  most  durable  blacks  are  lamp-black  and  vegetable 
black,  the  most  durable  yellows  are  yellow  ochre  and  Naples 
yellow,  both  of  wliicli  have  a  good  body.  Chrome  yellow 
is  fugitive,  and,  like  other  lead  salts,  it  becomes  dark  in 
bad  air.  Of  the  reds,  those  to  be  depended  on  are  the 
Venetian  red,  Indian  red,  light  red,  and  madder  lake;  car- 
mine lake,  vermilion,  and  chrome  red  are  best  avoided  on 
the  exterior.  The  only  blue  that  will  stand  is  ultramarine, 
though  it  is  expensive.  Prussian  blue,  cobalt.  Antwerp  blue, 
and  indigo  will  fade  either  singly  or  in  combination.  The 
umbers  and  siennas,  burnt  and  raw,  burnt  ochres  and  Van- 
dyke   brown,    are    j)ennanen(     colors.     Haw    umber    is    very 


USEFUL  INFORMATION  413 

durable  in  both  water  and  oil,  and  does  not  injure  other 
pigments  when  mixed  with  them.  The  same  may  be  said 
of  yellow  ochre,  a  natural-colored  clay,  which  does  not  lose 
its  color  when  mixed  with  lime,  and  hence  it  is  well  adapted 
for  distemper  painting.  Mixed  greens  are  not  so  durable 
as  those  direct  from  copper,  arsenic,  etc.,  which  are,  how- 
ever, injurious  to  health.  Emerald  green  made  of  verdigris 
and  a  solution  of  arsenious  acid,  and  Scheele's  green  and 
Vienna  green,  arsenites  of  copper,  are  very  poisonous. 

Durable  Limewash.  For  one  barrel  of  color  wash,  V2 
a  bushel  of  white  lime,  3  pecks  of  hydraulic  cement,  10 
pounds  umber,  10  pounds  ochre,  1  pound  Venetian  red, 
and  14  pound  lamp-black.  Slake  the  lime,  melt  the  lamp- 
black with  vinegar,  mix  well  together,  add  the  cement,  and 
fill  the  barrel  with  water.  Let  it  stand  twelve  hours  before 
using,  and  stir  frequently  while  putting  it  on.  This  is  not 
white,  but  oi'  a  light  stone  color,  without  the  unpleasant 
glare  of  white.  The  color  may  be  changed  by  adding  more 
or  less  of  the  colors  named,  or  other  colors.  This  wash 
covers  well,  needing  only  one  coat,  and  is  superior  to  any- 
thing excepting  oil  {)aint. 

Enamelling  a  Bath.  To  remove  the  dirt  and  grease  from 
a  bath,  make  a  strong  lye  of  soda,  say  2  pounds  of  soda 
to  a  pail  of  water,  and  well  scrub  it  out  with  this.  Then  rub 
it  well  down  with  pumice-stone  or  glass-paper,  then  wipe 
out  all  the  dust.  To  make  a  good  job  it  will  want  three 
coats  of  enamel.  After  giving  the  first  coat  let  it  stand 
for  a  day,  after  it  is  dry,  before  applying  the  second,  and 
let  it  be  two  days  between  the  second  and  third  coats,  to 
allow  it  to  get  thoroughly  dry,  a  very  essential  point. 

Enamelling  upon  Glass.  This  is  a  German  method  for 
enamelling  glass:  A  mixture  of  dry  enamel,  thick  pine  oil, 
and  damar  lac  is  laid  on  the  glass  in  a  semi-dried  state. 
After  drying  the  drawing  is  pressed  in.  The  enamel  is  then 
burned.     In  this  way  it  is  possible  to  reproduce  the  forms 


414  CYCLOPEDIA    OF    PAINTING 

of  figures  iu  slight  relief,  the  hairs  of  auiuials,  the  feath- 
ers of  birds,  and  the  veins  of  leaves. 

Filler-up  for  Nail-Holes.  As  a  material  for  filling  up 
nail-lioles  in  wood  and  broken  places,  the  following  is 
recommended  as  simple  and  fli'ectual:  Take  line  sawdust 
and  mix  into  a  thick  paste  with  glue,  pound  it  into  i;he 
hole,  and  when  drj'  it  will  make  the  wood  as  good  as  new. 

Filling,  A  very  complete  tilling  for  open  cracks  in  floors: 
may  be  made  by  thoroughly  soaking  newspapers  in  a  paste 
made  of  1  pound  of  flour,  3  quarts  of  water,  and  a  table- 
spoonful  of  alum,  thoroughly  boiled  and  mixed,  make  the 
mixture  about  as  thick  as  putty,  a  kind  of  paper  putty, 
and   it  will  harden  like  papier-mache. 

Filling  for  Cracked  Ceilings.  Whiting  mixed  with  glue 
water  or  calcined  plaster  and  Avater  makes  a  good  putty 
for   filling   cracks   in   plastered   ceilings. 

Frost-withstanding  Mortar.  Mortar  made  in  the  follow- 
ing manner  will  stand  if  used  in  almost  all  sorts  of  weather; 
1  bushel  of  unslaked  lime,  3  bushels  of  sharp  sand,  mix  1 
pound  of  alum  with  1  pint  of  linseed  oil,  and  thoroughly 
mix  this  with  the  mortar  when  making  it,  and  use  hot.  The 
alum  will  counteract  the  action  of  the  frost  on  the  mortar. 

Fugitive  Colors.  Lakes  and  vermilions  are  very  fugitive 
when  exposed  to  the  light,  and  an  endeavor  must  be  made 
to  mix  them  so  as  to  retain  their  beauty  and  natural  color 
the  longest  possible  time.  Varnish  containing  no  resin  gum 
has  been  found  by  experience  to  extend  their  life  and  beauty 
the    longest. 

Gilding  on  Iron.  The  following  directions  are  for  put- 
ting on  japan  and  gilding  on  ironwork:  The  articles  to  be 
japanned  are  clean  of  oil,  usually  by  the  use  of  turpentine, 
and  the  japan  varnish  applied,  when  the  articles  are  placed 
in  a  hot  oven  to  dry.  To  gild  japanned  articles,  the  part 
to  be  gilded  is  covered  with  oil  si/.o,  thinned  with  turpen- 
tine,  and  gold   powder  put   on   with    a   puff.     This  is  then 


USEFUL  INFORMATION  415 

varnished  and  moderately  heated  in  an  oven.  Leaf  gold 
may  be  applied  in  the  same  way. 

Glass  Window  Writing.  To  mix  colors:  Mix  dry  fine 
colors  with  clear  varnish  or  linseed  oil,  turpentine,  and 
driers,  also  dry  colors,  gold  size,  and  turpentine.  By  using 
dry  colors  a  good  body  is  obtained.  As  to  back- 
ground, use  quick  drying  varnish  and  dry  colors  or  gold 
size  and  turpentine,  these  will  dry  quickly.  Rich  brown : 
2  parts  black,  1  part  yellow,  3  parts  red,  3  parts  turpentine, 
1  part  oil,  a  little  gold  size,  and  drier.  Olive  color:  16 
parts  lemon  chrome,  2  parts  Prussian  blue,  2  parts  lamp- 
black, 3  parts  turpentine,  to  1  part  oil,  driers,  and  gold  size. 
For  black  letters  get  as  much  black  as  required,  and  mix 
with  gold  size  and  turpentine,  turpentine  mostly,  to  required 
thickness.  Any  other  color  can  be  treated  in  the  same  way. 
For  background  use  pure  white  lead,  and  mix  with  maple 
varnish  and  turpentine,  for  cream  color  stain  with  lemon 
chrome  and  yellow  ochre  in  oil  and  stipple  with  a  new 
brush.  Do  not  paint  letters  and  background  same  day,  or 
thej'   will  work  into  one  another. 

Green  or  Golden  Color  for  Brass.  The  pleasing  green  or 
golden  color  generally  to  be  found  on  the  cheap  and  light 
brass  articles  of  French  manufacture  can  be  easily  produced 
at  but  trifling  expense  by  the  following  means:  1%  ounces 
of  caustic  soda  and  IV2  ounces  of  milk  sugar  are  dissolved 
in  1%  pints  of  water  and  boiled  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour. 
The  solution  is  as  clear  as  water  at  first,  but  gradually 
acquires  a  dark  yellow  color.  The  vessel  is  next  taken  from 
the  fire,  placed  on  a  wooden  support,  and  II/2  ounces  of  a 
cold  concentrated  solution  of  blue  vitriol  stirred  in,  A  red 
precipitate  of  suboxide  of  copper  is  at  once  formed,  and 
by  the  time  the  mixture  cools  to  167°  Fahrenheit  the  pre- 
cipitate will  have  settled.  A  suitable  wooden  sieve  is  placed 
in  the  vessel,  and  in  this  the  polished  articles  are  laid.  In 
about  a  minute  the  sieve  is  lifted  up  to  see  how  far  the 
operation  has  gone,  and  at  the  end  of  the  second  minute 


416  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  PAINTING 

the  golden  color  is  dark  enough.  The  sieve  and  articles  are 
now  taken  out,  and  the  latter  are  washed  and  then  dried 
in  sawdust.  If  the  brass  is  left  longer  in  the  copper  solu- 
tion, in  a  short  time  a  fine  green  lustre  is  produced,  becom- 
ing yellow  at  first  and  then  bluish  green.  After,  it  turns 
green,  then  the  well-known  iridescent  colors  finally  appear. 
To  obtain  uniform  colors  it  is  necessai"}'  that  they  be  pro- 
duced slowly,  at  temperatures  between  135°  and  170°  Fahr- 
enheit. The  copper  bath  can  be  used  repeatedly,  and  can 
be  kept  a  long  time,  if  bottled  up  tightly,  without  change. 
After  it  is  exhausted  it  can  be  renewed  by  adding  %  of 
an  ounce  of  caustic  soda,  replacing  the  water  that  has 
evaporated,  heating  to  boiling,  and  adding  Yg  of  an  ounce 
of  a   cold  solution  of  blue  vitriol. 

Harmonious  Colors.  A  whole  wall,  ceiling,  or  other  space 
should  not  be  entirely  covered  over  with  rich  ornament, 
and  so  also  in  a  colored  piece  of  drapery  or  other  orna- 
mental work,  it  is  better  to  have  some  portion  of  it  much 
less  rich  and  of  less  complicated  pattern  than  the  rest,  and 
in  some  cases  to  have  only  a  border  round  a  single  ground 
destitute  of  any  pattern,  as  it  is  apt  to  fatigue  the  eye 
when  overloaded  with  an  equal  richness  of  detail  through- 
out. This  is  still  more  important  in  a  colored  building, 
where,  if  the  whole  walls,  columns,  and  other  parts  are 
covered  with  elaborate  and  colored  patterns,  the  eye  feels 
a  want  of  repose,  and  the  same  when  a  building  is  covered 
entirely  with  sculptured  ornament  without  color.  The 
richly  carved  part  not  only  requires  an  unsculptured  por- 
tion in  order  that  it  shall  not  fatigue  the  eye,  but  is  im- 
proved and  set  off  by  the  contrast,  and  contrast  is  as  nec- 
essary for  effect  in  fonn^,  quantity  of  detail,  position  of 
lines,  as  it  is  in  color.  On  this  principle  great  effect  is 
sometimes  given  to  a  colored  pattern  by  having  a  portion  of 
the  composition  on  the  wall  of  the  building  without  any 
color  at  all,  and  for  the  same  reason  an  expanse  of  wall 
in  a  room  often  looks  well  when  painted  with  a  single  uni- 


USEFUL  INFORMATION  417 

form  ground  surrounded  by  a  rich  pattern.  Again,  certain 
colors  are  better  suited  for  some  places  than  for  others,  and 
the  brighter  and  more  transparent  for  higher  positions,  and 
if  the  hangings  of  a  room  are  scarlet,  crimson  with  gold  has 
a  richer  and  better  effect  for  chairs  than  scarlet  and  gold. 
A  carpet  may  be  darker  than  the  general  tone  of  the  drap- 
eries, and  some  of  its  colors  may  be  carried  up  by  the 
walls  or  the  curtains,  but  if  the  carpet  is  dark,  the  furni- 
ture shows  better  by  being  of  a  lighter  hue.  Red,  or  a  light 
color,  is  better  than  blue  for  table  covers,  and  though  green 
is  not  recommended  for  daylight,  it  lights  up  well  at  night, 
when  blue  does  not,  and  this  then  often  appears  black,  or 
when  of  a  light  tone  is  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from 
green.  Much,  however,  may  be  done  to  give  blue  its  proper 
effect,  even  by  artificial  light,  either  by  placing  a  light  tone 
of  blue  close  to  the  darker  one,  or  by  interspersing  it  with 
white,  which  will  often  lead  the  eye  to  see  the  darker  blue, 
and  prevent  its  appearing  black.  This  may  be  seen  in  some 
Persian  carpets  where  two  blues  are  used.  And  if  some  of 
these  have  too  much  green  for  daylight,  they  have  a  good 
effect  at  night,  except  when  in  excess.  Dark  green,  like 
dark  blue,  looks  darker  by  artificial  light. 

How  to  Use  Grlue.  For  glue  to  be  properly  effective  it 
requires  to  penetrate  the  pores  of  the  wood,  and  the 
more  a  body  of  glue  penetrates  the  wood  the  more  sub- 
stantial the  joint  will  remain.  Glues  that  take  the  longest 
to  dry  are  to  be  preferred  to  those  that  dry  quickly,  the 
slow  drying  being  always  the  strongest,  other  things  being 
equal.  For  general  use,  no  method  gives  such  good  results 
as  the  following:  Break  the  glue  up  small,  put  it  into  an 
iron  kettle,  cover  the  glue  with  water,  and  allow  it  to  soak 
twelve  hours.  After  soaking  boil  until  done.  Then  pour  it 
into  an  air-tight  box,  leave  the  cover  off  until  cold,  then 
cover  up  tight.  As  glue  is  required,  cut  out  a  portion  and 
melt  in  the  usual  way.  Expose  no  more  of  the  made  glue 
to  the  atmosphere  for  any  length  of  time  than  is  necessary, 


418  CYCLOPEDLV  OF   PAINTING 

as  the  atmosphere  is  very  destructive  to  made  glue.  Never 
heat  made  glue  in  a  pot  thai  is  subject  to  the  direct  heat 
of  a  fire  or  a  lamp.  All  such  methods  of  heating  glue 
cannot  be  condemned  in  terms  too  severe.  Do  not  use  thick 
glue  for  veneering  or  joints.  In  all  cases  work  it  well  into 
the  wood,  in  a  similar  manner  to  what  painters  do  with 
paint.  Glue  both  surfaces  of  the  work,  except  in  cases  of 
veneering.  Never  glue  hot  wood,  as  the  hot  wood  will 
absorb  all  the  water  in  the  glue  too  suddenly,  and  leave 
only   a  very  little   residue. 

Inert  Pigments.  An  inert  pigment  is  one  which,  when 
mixed  with  oil,  will  have  no  chemical  action  upon  it.  It 
will  have  no  chemical  effect  upon  any  other  substance  with 
which  it  is  mixed,  as  for  instance  barj'tes,  silica  and  gyp- 
sum. On  the  other  hand,  white  lead,  Prussian  blue,  and 
chrome  yellow,  are  chemical  colors,  and  are  supposed  to 
chemically   affect    the  oil   and   some   other  pigments. 

Killing  the  Smell  of  Paint.  Place  a  vessel  of  burning 
charcoal  in  the  center  of  the  room  and  throw  on  it  two-  or 
three  handfuls  of  junij^er  berries.  Shut  the  windows  and 
doors  close.  Twenty-four  hours  afterwards  the  door  may 
be  opened,  when  it  will  be  found  that  the  smell  of  the  paint 
has  disappeared.  This  can  be  done  without  any  injury  to 
curtains  and  tapestries. 

Making  Plaster  Set  Quickly  or  Slowly.  In  order  to  make 
plaster  set  quickly,  mix  it  witli  water  into  which  a  little 
sulphate  of  potash  has  been  dissolved.  To  make  it  set 
slowly,  mix  it  with  fine  slaked  lime.  The  time  of  setting 
may  be  )-egulated  by  clumging  the  relative  quantities. 

Manganese.  The  various  compounds  of  manganese  are 
))erhai)s  more  used  than  any  other  driers.  Of  these  the 
black  manganese  contains  most  oxygen,  but  many  regard  it 
as  less  useful  than  umber,  which  contains  considerable 
manganese,  and  also  iron.  Umber  is  thought  by  some  to 
make  a  less  sensitive  oil,  tJiat  is,  a  fiuid  oil,  or  varnish, 
which   changes   less   on   exjiosure   to   the   cold.      Both    man- 


USEFUL   INFORMATION  419 

ganese  and  umber  lose  some  of  their  substance  in  the  oil, 
but  to  what  extent  manganese'  or  iron  soaps  are  formed 
with  the  oil  acids  is  not  known.  Both  umber  and  black 
manganese    boiled   with    oil   darken   it. 

Marbleizing  Glass.  One  method  of  marbleizing  glass  con- 
sists in  applying  a  mixture  of  varnish  and  oil  to  the  surface 
of  water  of  proper  extent,  and  spraying  or  blowing  upon 
the  layer  or  film  of  oil  and  varnish  dry  colored  powders 
to  represent  the  mottled,  speckled,  veined,  or  other  appear- 
ance of  mottled  or  other  stone.  The  glass  is  prepared  by 
being  coated  upon  one  surface  with  varnish  or  japan,  and 
is  then  placed  upon  the  powder  supported  by  the  oily  sur- 
faced water,  and  the  powder  immediately  adheres  or  fastens 
itself  to  the  varnish  or  japan  on  the  glass.  The  apjoaratus 
for  distributing  the  color  consists  of  a  spraying  device  or 
distributor  having  a  receptacle  for  the  composition,  which 
is  introduced  through  a  hole  covered  by  a  perforated  cap. 
There  is  a  diaphragm  with  holes  or  perforations,  which  are 
closed  by  a  slide.  This  diaphragm  separates  the  space  con- 
taining the  mixture  from  a  passage  or  extension,  the  end 
of  the  casing  of  the  passage  being  contracted  sufficiently  to 
fit  upon  the  end  of  the  bellows.  To  operate  this  device 
the  receptacle  is  filled  with  the  composition,  the  cap  is 
secui'ed  in  its  place,  and  the  slide  lifted.  The  bellows  are 
then  operated,  and  the  pressure  of  air  drives  the  mixture 
in  fine  spray  or  drops  upon  the  surface  of  the  water.  The 
device  for  applying  the  diy  colors  to  the  floating  sheet  or 
drops  of  oil  and  varnish  is  similar  to  that  described,  but  in 
order  that  a  number  of  colors  may  be  sprayed  or  blown 
upon  the  floating  oil  and  varnish  at  the  same  time,  the 
receptacle  is  divided  at  the  end  into  two  or  more  parts, 
and  a  shaft,  having  agitators,  is  extended  through  them. 
The  air  is  forced  by  bellows  or  other  suitable  means  through 
perforations  in  the  diaphragm.  Caps  cover  the  various 
chambers,  etc.,  and  are  perforated  to  permit  of  the  escape 
of  the  powder.     In  operation  the  air  from  the  bellows  or 


420  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

other  source  enters  the  perforations  in  the  plate,  and,  pass- 
ing through  the  chambers,  causes  the   agitators  to  lift  the 
powder  and  agitate  it,  and  at  the  same  time  the  air  pressure 
forces  the  powder  through  the  perforations  in  the   cap  in 
fine  streams  of  dust,  and   of  course   by   moving  the  distrib- 
utor, the  dust  may  be  distributed  upon  the  floating  oil  or 
varnish  as  may  be  desired.    It  is  obvious  that  the  design  of 
the   marble,   stone,   or   other   article   is   produced   upon   the 
floating  body   of   oil    and    varnish    before   it   is   applied    to 
the  glass,  and  it  is  also  obvious  that  by  coating  the  surface 
of  the  glass  with   varnish   or  other  adhesive  material   of  a 
like  nature,  upon  placing  the  same  with  the  surface  having 
the  varnish  or  adhesive  material  down,  so   that  it  shall  be 
brought   in   contact   with   the   coloring  matter  held   by  the 
floating  surface   or  layer  of  oil   and   varnish,   the   coloring 
matter  will  immediately  adhere  to  the  japan  or  other  ad- 
hesive  coating,    and    will   thereby    become    fastened    to    the 
glass,  so  that  upon  the  removal  of  the  glass  the  design  laid 
out   upon    the   floating  layer  of  japan   and  oil   is  removed 
from  the  water,  together  with  such  of  the  floating  oil  and 
japan  as  unites  therewith.     Of  course  the  coloring  or  mot- 
tled or  other  appearance  of  any  marble  or  other  stone,  or 
of  any  other  material,  may  be   reproduced   upon   the   glass 
by  this  process,  as  it  will   only  be  necessarj-  to  change  the 
dry   colors   to   correspond   to   those   of  the  stone  or  article 
to  be  imitated  or  copied. 

MetaUizing  Wood.  A  new  method  of  treating  wood, 
which  gives  it  the  appearance  of  a  piece  of  shining  polished 
metal,  with  a  surface  so  hard  and  smooth  as  to  be  sus- 
ceptible of  a  high  polish,  is  as  follows:  The  wood  is  first 
steeped  in  a  bath  of  caustic  alkali  for  two  or  three  days, 
according  to  its  degree  of  permeability,  at  a  temperature 
of  between  165°  and  197°  Fahrenheit.  It  is  then  placed 
in  a  second  bath  of  hydrosulphate  of  calcium,  to  which  a 
concentrated  solution  of  sulpliur  is  added  after  some  twen- 
ty-four to  thirty-six  hours.    The  third  bath  is  one  of  acetate 


USEFUL  INFORMATION  421 

of  lead,  at  a  temperature  of  from  95°  to  120°  Fahrenheit, 
and  in  this  latter  the  wood  is  allowed  to  remain  from  thirty 
to  fifty  hours.  After  being  subjected  to  a  thorough  dry- 
ing, it  is  in  a  condition  for  being  polished  with  lead,  tin, 
or  zinc,  as  may  be  desired,  finishing  the  process  with  a 
burnisher  of  either  glass  or  porcelain,  the  appearance  of 
the  wood  being  in  every  respect  that  of  polished  metal, 
having,  in  fact,  the  semblance  of  a  polished  mirror,  which 
is  unaffected   by  moisture. 

Moulding  Composition.  A  composition  for  making  good 
some  slight  portion  of  a  defective  moulding  is  made  of 
powdered  whiting  with  glue  in  solution  worked  into  a 
paste,  with  a  sufficiency  of  turpentine  to  destroy  the  brit- 
tleness,  a  little  linseed  oil  may  be  added  to  prevent  sticki- 
ness. The  composition  may  be  colored  to  suit  the  sur- 
roundings. 

Moulding  Wax.  To  prepare  wax  for  taking  moulds,  put 
some  common  beeswax  into  an  earthenware  pot,  place  it 
over  a  slow  fire,  and  when  it  is  all  melted  stir  into  it  a 
little  white  lead  or  plumbago,  about  1  ounce  of  the  lead 
to  1  pound  of  the  wax.  This  mixture  tends  to  prevent  the 
mould  from  cracking  when  cooling,  and  from  floating  in 
the  solution.  It  should  be  re-melted  two  or  three  times 
before  using  for  the  first  time.  Another  kind  is  made  thus: 
Melt  carefully  over  a  moderate  fire  2  pounds  of  yellow 
beeswax,  add  4I/2  pounds  of  Venice  turpentine,  2  ounces  of 
lard,  1%  pounds  of  purified  bole,  and  mix  thoroughly.  Then 
gradually  pour  the  mixture  into  a  vessel  containing  water, 
and  thoroughly  knead  several  times  with  the  hands.  The 
wax  should  be  melted  at  such  a  low  temperature  that  no 
bubbles   appear  upon  the  melted   surface. 

Faint  for  Iron.  The  following  are  anticorrosive  paints 
for  iron:  Take  10  per  cent,  of  burnt  magnesia,  or  even 
baryta  or  strontia,  and  mix  it  cold  with  ordinary  linseed 
oil  paint,  and  then  enough  mineral  oil  to  envelope  the 
alkaline  earth,  the  free  acid   of  the  paint  will  be  neutral^ 


422  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

ized,  while  the  iron  will  be  protected  by  the  permanent 
alkaline  action  of  the  paint.  Iron  to  be  buried  in  deep 
earth  may  be  painted  with  a  mixture  of  100  parts  of  resin, 
25  parts  of  gutta  percha,  and  50  parts  of  paraffin,  to  which 
20  parts  of  magnesia  and  some  mineral  oil  have  been 
added. 

Plumber's  Solder.  Mix  2  or  3  parts  of  lead  and  1  part 
of  tin.     It  must  be  free  from  zinc. 

Polished  Floors.  These  should  be  rubbed  two  or  three 
times  with  linseed  oil,  and  then  polished  every  week  with 
turpentine  and  beeswax.  The  oftener  the  oil  is  rubbed  in 
to  begin   with,  the   darker  the  boards  will   be. 

Preserving  Painted  Iron.  A  method  of  preventing  paint 
from  detaching  itself  in  large  flakes  from  iron  surfaces  is 
as  follows:  First  wash  the  surface  to  be  painted  with  soap 
and  water,  rinse  and  let  drj'.  When  dry,  go  over  it  \\ith  a 
stiff  brush  dipped  in  hot  linseed  oil.  When  this  becomes 
tacky  the  paint  can  be  applied.  If  tlie  object  is  small,  and 
of  such  a  nature  that  heating  will  not  hurt  it,  raise  the 
temperature  until  a  drop  of  oil  brought  into  contact  with 
it  smokes.  Go  over  the  surface  carefully  with  the  raw  oil, 
and  let  cool.  It  is  now  ready  to  receive  the  paint.  With 
large  objects  which  cannot  be  heated,  the  main  point  is  to 
apply  the  oil  as  hot  as  possible,  the  nearer  to  boiling  point 
the  better.  Objects  thus  painted  will  jireserve  the  coat 
of  color  for  an  indehnite  period,  the  i^aiut  being  unaffected 
by  heat  or  cold,  excessive  moisture  or  excessive  dryness. 
Wood  exposed  to  the  weather  may  be  tieated  with  good 
results  in   the  manner  indicated. 

Preserving  Putty.  (Jood  putty  is  made  to  harden  on 
exposure,  and  consequently  cans  should  be  kept  closed,  and 
a  little  water,  or,  better  still,  linseed  oil,  should  be  kept  on 
top  of  putty  in  tubs,  large  cans,  and  barrels,  to  prevent  a 
hard  crust  from  forming.  A  putty  that  shows  no  signs  of 
getting  stiff  or  liaid  iifiei-  l)oing  open  and  exposed,  lacks 
an   important    element   of-  value. 


USEFUL   INFORMATION  423 

Preventing  Glue  from  Cracking,  The  addition  of  a  little 
chloride  of  calcium  to  glue  will  prevent  its  cracking  when 
exposed   to   considerable   heat. 

Putty  for  Polished  Wood.  Take  a  small  quantity  of 
white  beeswax,  melt  it  down,  and,  while  liquid,  mix  with 
whiting,  as  it  gets  thick,  keep  adding  boiled  oil  until  you 
have  it  as  you  wish  it,  when  using  it,  sheet  the  wood  over 
solid,  let  stand  until  the  next  day,  when  you  can  remove 
the  sui"plus  by  using  No.  ^^  sandpaper.  It  is  easier  and 
cheaper  than  the  shellac,  and  can  be  levelled  sooner,  leav- 
ing nothing  but  the  pores  or  grain  of  the  wood  filled,  which 
is  better  than  having  the  wood  all  stained  up  with  the 
shellac. 

Eemoving  Iron  Rust.  Iron  rust  can  be  removed  by  salt 
mixed  with  lemon  juice  being  rubbed  on,  or  either  place 
the  article  in  a  bowl  containing  kerosene  oil  or  wrap  it  in 
a  soft  cloth  well  saturated  with  the  oil,  allow  it  to  remain 
so  for  two  days,  and  then  scour  the  rusty  spots  with  brick- 
dust.  If  very  badly  rusted,  use  salt  melted  with  hot  sul- 
phuric acid,  after  scouring  well,  rinse  in  boiling  water,  and 
polish  clean  with  soft  flannel  and  a  little  sweet  oil. 

Removing  Spots  from  Ceilings.  A  very  simple  remedy 
for  removing  rain  spots  or  such  caused  by  water  soaking 
through  ceilings,  has  been  employed  with  good  results.  Take 
unslaked  white  lime,  dilute  with  alcohol,  and  paint  the 
spots  with  it.  When  the  spots  are  dry,  Avhich  ensues 
quickly,  as  the  alcohol  evaporates,  and  the  lime  forms  a 
sort  of  insulating  layer,  painting  can  be  done  with  size 
color,   and   the   spots    will   not   show    through   again. 

Removing  Oil  Stains  from  Marble  Statuary.  Make  a 
paste  with  fullers'  earth  and  hot  watei",  cover  the  spots 
with  it,  let  it  dry  on,  and  the  next  day  scour  it  off  with 
soap.  Another  recipe  is  to  take  i/i  pound  soft  soap,  14 
pound  powdered  whiting,  1  ounce  soda,  piece  of  blue  the 
size  of  a  walnut.  Boil  all  together  for  a  quarter  of  an 
hour,  and  rub  over  the  marble  while  hot.     Leave  it  on  for 


424  CYCLOPEDIA   OF  PAINTING 

twenty-four  hours  at  least,  then  wash  off,  and  polish  with 
a  coarse  flannel.  The  above  quantity  is  quite  enough  for 
an   ordinary  mantelpiece. 

Restoring  Antique  Furniture.  To  restore  to  their  orig- 
inal appearance  antique  pieces  of  furniture  which  have  be- 
come unsightly  on  account  of  too  frequent  varnishing  or 
besmearing  by  unskilled  hands,  the  following  method  should 
be  employed :  Take  equal  parts  of  strong  alcohol  and  good 
oil  of  turpentine,  and  heat  this  mixture  in  a  bottle  by  plac- 
ing it  in  hot  water.  With  this  Avarm  liquid  paint  the 
article,  whereupon  the  old  varnish  will  dissolve  at  once. 
The  varnish  is  then  removed  by  scraping  and  wiping,  and 
the  spreading,  scraping,  and  cleaning  is  repeated  as  often 
as  necessary  until  the  surface  has  become  entirely  clean 
again,  so  that  the  object  may  be  rendered  glossy,  or  dull, 
as  required.  This  process  is  especially  recommended,  since 
it  does  not  change  or  attack  the  color  of  the  wood,  as  is 
often  the  case  if  lye  is  used. 

Rotten  Stone.  This  is  sometimes  harsh  and  gritty,  and 
the  best  way  of  trying  it  is  to  take  a  little  between  the 
teeth,  when  the  least  portion  of  grit  may  be  detected.  Care- 
ful workmen  will  always  wash  it  before  they  use  it.  This 
is  effected  by  stirring  the  fine  powder  in  a  considerable 
quantity  of  water,  then  allowing  it  to  remain  at  rest  for 
a  few  seconds,  and  pouring  the  water  into  a  glazed  earthen 
vessel,  the  powder  which  precipitates  will  be  veiy  fine  and 
smooth,  by  washing  the  remainder,  the  whole  of  the  finer 
parts  may  be  separated  from  the  grit. 

Rust  on  Marble.  To  remove  rust  from  marble,  an  opera- 
tion which  depends  upon  the  solubility  of  iron  sulphide  in 
a  solution  of  potassium  cyanide,  is  thus  effected :  Clay  is 
made  into  a  thin  paste  with  ammonium  sulphide,  and  the 
rust  spot  smeared  with  the  mixture,  care  being  taken  that 
the  spot  is  only  just  covered.  After  a  lapse  of  ten  minutes, 
this  paste  is  washed  off  and  replaced  by  one  consisting  of 
white   bole    mixed    with    a    solution    of  potassium   cyanide, 


USEFUL  INFORMATION  425 

1  to  4,  which  is  in  its  turn  washed  of  after  a  lapse  of  about 
two  and  a  half  hours.  Should  a  reddish  spot  remain  after 
washing  off  the  first  paste,  a  second  layer  may  be  applied 
for  about  five  minutes. 

Securing  Brass  Letters  to  Glass.  Every  one  who  uses 
brass  letters  on  glass  windows,  and  knows  how  often  they 
drop  off  from  unequal  expansion,  or  from  the  too  energetic 
efforts  of  window  cleaners,  will  find  the  following  useful : 
Litharge  2  parts,  white  lead  1  part,  boiled  linseed  oil  3 
parts,  gum  copal  1  part.  Mixed  just  before  using,  this 
forms   a   quick-drying  and   secure   cement. 

Size,  or  Mordant  Varnish.  One  of  the  best  mordants 
or  sizes  for  signs  or  for  work  to  be  exposed  to  the  weather, 
is  called  fat-oil  size.  It  should  be  prepared  as  follows: 
Expose  boiled  linseed  oil  to  a  strong  heat  in  a  pan,  when 
it  begins  to  smoke,  set  fire  to  the  oil,  allow  it  to  burn  a 
moment,  and  then  suddenly  extinguish  it  by  covering  the 
pan.  This  will  be  ready  for  use,  when  cold,  but  will  re- 
quire  thinning   with   a   little   turpentine. 

Softening  Putty.  When  ordinary  putty  becomes  very 
hard,  it  may  be  softened  for  the  purpose  of  easy  removal 
by  keeping  it  moist  for  a  short  time  with  caustic  potash 
or  soda,  or  if  the  putty  be  painted  with  nitric  or  muriatic 
acid  it  will  be  softened  in  about  an  hour. 

Specks.  These  are  liable  to  appear  when  varnish  is  al- 
lowed to  skin  over.  Some  varnishes  will  skin  over  although 
the  can  is  constantly  corked,  and  this  skin  being  broken 
and  mixing  with  the  varnish  will  cause  it  to  look  sandj'  or 
seedy.  The  well-known  common  causes  of  specky  work 
may  be  mentioned,  dust  or  pumice  powder  upon  the  job, 
dirt  present  in  the  air,  particularly  liable  in  loosely  or 
badly  built  shops  during  windy  weather,  and  specks  or  lice 
in   the  varnish  brush  due  to  a  variety  of  causes. 

Sponges.  New  sponges  should  alwaj^s  be  soaked  in 
warm  water  for  several  hours  before  being  used,  and  the 
water  should  be  changed  while  it  is  at   all   colored.     Feel 


426  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

the  sponge  all  over  before  using,  as  frequently  small  por- 
tions of  rock  remain  in  it,  the  sharp  points  of  which  scratch 
the   paint. 

Strong  Glue  for  Damp  Places.  For  a  strong  glue  which 
will  hold  in  a  clamp  place,  the  following  recipe  works  well: 
Take  of  the  best  and  strongest  blue  enough  to  make  a  pint 
when  melted.  Soak  this  until  soft,  pour  off  the  water  as  in 
ordinary  glue-making,  and  add  a  little  water  if  the  glue  is 
likely  to  be  too  thick.  When  melted  add  three  tablespoon- 
fuls  of  boiled  linseed  oil.  Stir  frequently,  and  keep  up  the 
heat  till  the  oil  disappears,  which  may  take  the  whole  day, 
and  perhaps  longer.  If  necessary,  add  water  to  make  up 
for  that  lost  by  evaporation.  When  no  more  oil  is  seen, 
a  tablespoonfnl  of  whiting  is  added  and  thoroughly  incor- 
porated with  the  glue. 

Sulphate  of  Manganese.  This  is  a  pink-colored  salt, 
useful,  especially  with  zinc  white,  for  exposure  to  sulphur 
gases.  The  following  is  the  formula  for  its  use :  Sulphate 
of  manganese  1  part,  calcined  sulphate  of  zinc  1  part,  and 
acetate  of  manganese  1  part.  These  must  be  ground  and 
sifted  into  a  fine  powder,  and  then  dusted  over  97  parts 
of  zinc  white.  Another  method  for  its  use  is :  6  to  8 
ounces  of  sulphate  of  manganese  to  100  pounds  of  ground 
zinc  white  paint,  the  powder  thoroughly  mixed  with  a 
portion  of  the  paint,  and  this  portion  thoroughly  mixed 
with  the  whole.  Unless  care  is  taken  in  the  mixing,  the 
work  may  be  spotted. 

Taking  Grease  out  of  Boards.  Pipeclay  and  water  mixed 
together  until  they  form  a  thick  paste,  and  spread  over  the 
part  where  there  is  a  stain,  will  take  out  the  grease  very 
soon.  Other  plans  are  to  cover  the  part  thickly  with  dry 
fuller's  earth,  or  a  mixture  may  be  made  of  5  parts  of 
fuller's  earth  to  1  part  each  of  pearlash  and  soft  soap 
with  boiling  water  to  make  a  paste,  lay  it  on  quite  hot,  and 
leave  till  diy,  and  then  scour  it  with  soap  or  silver  sand 
and  water.    For  simply  making  the  boards  a  good  color  and 


USEFUL  INFORMATION  427 

to  keep  them  free  from  insects,  use  the  following  mixture: 
14  pound  of  lime  and  3,4  pound  of  sand  to  V2  pound  of  soft 
soap.  Lay  it  on  the  boards  and  scrub  it  in  well,  wash  it  off 
with  clean  water,  and  make  it  as  dry  as  possible.  If  ink 
should  he  spilt  on  boards,  it  may  be  removed  by  the  appli- 
cation of  muriatic  acid,  and  aftenvards  simply  washed. 
For  painted  boards,  either  on  the  floor  or  wainscoting, 
nothing'  better  or  more  cleansing  can  be  used  than  fuller's 
earth,  with  or  without  soap. 

Testing  Plaster  of  Paris.  The  method  of  testing  the 
quality  of  plaster  of  Paris  is  by  taking  a  small  pinch  of 
the  powder  between  the  finger  and  thumb  and  gently  rub- 
bing it,  if  small  joarticles  of  it  are  felt,  grit  indicates  that 
parts  of  the  plaster  have  already  absorbed  water,  and  it 
is  therefore  unfit  for  use.  The  same  test  may  be  observed 
by  taking  a  pinch  of  the  powder  again  and  placing  the  fin- 
gers under  water,  and  then  rubbing  the  same  way  as  before. 
If,  however,  in  both  of  these  tests  no  grit  is  felt,  and  under 
water  a  thin  creamy  substance  is  found,  which  is  easily 
rubbed  off  the  fingers,  the  plaster  is  in  a  proper  condition 
for  use. 

To  Clean  White  Marble.  Mix  together  i/o  pound  of  pearl- 
ash,  1/2  pound  of  soft  soap,  and  1  pound  of  whiting.  Boil 
them  until  they  become  as  thick  as  paste,  and  let  the  mix- 
ture cool.  Before  it  is  quite  cold  spread  it  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  marble  and  leave  it  for  at  least  a  whole  day. 
Use  a  soft  water  to  wash  it  off,  and  rub  it  well  with  soft 
cloths.  For  black  marble  nothing  is  better  than  spirits  of 
turpentine. 

To  Perforate  Glass.  In  drilling  glass,  stick  a  piece  of 
stiff  putty  or  clay  where  the  hole  is  required,  and  make  a 
hole  in  the  putty  the  size  required,  reaching  down  to  the 
glass.  Pour  a  little  molten  lead  in  the  hole,  and  if  the 
glass  is  not  too  thick,  the  piece  will  at  once  drop  out. 

To  Polish  Marble.  To  polish  marble,  such  as  table-tops, 
the  following  mode  is  followed  by  masons:     With  a  piece 


428  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

of  sanv^stone  with  a  very  fine  grit  rub  the  slab  backward 
and  forward,  using  very  fine  sand  and  water,  till  the  marble 
appears,  equally  rough,  and  not  in  scratches,  next  use  a 
finer  stone  and  finer  sand,  till  its  surface  appears  equally 
gone  over,  then,  with  fine  emery  powder  and  a  piece  of  felt 
or  old  bat  wrapped  around  a  weight,  rub  till  all  the  marks 
left  by  the  former  process  are  worked  out,  and  it  appears 
with  a  comparative  gloss  on  its  surface.  Afterwards  finish 
the  polish  with  putt}'  powder  and  fine  clean  rags.  As  soon 
as  the  face  appears  of  a  good  gloss,  do  not  put  any  more 
powder  on  the  rag,  but  rub  it  well,  and  in  a  short  time  it 
will   appear  as  if  fresh  from  the  mason's  hands. 

To  Remove  Rust.  A  mixture  of  kerosene  oil  and  emery 
powder  rubbed  on  with  a  piece  of  cloth  makes  steel  as 
bright  as  a  button.  But  as  prevention  is  better  than  cure, 
to  prevent  the  formation  of  rust  the  bright  steel  should 
be  painted  with  wax  varnish,  made  by  dissolving  1  part 
of  solid  paraffin  in  15  parts  of  benzole.  This  is  a  much 
more  cleanly  application  than  such  fatty  compounds  as 
white  lead  and  oil,  and  is  well  suited  for  steel  grates  and 
similar  goods. 

Transparent  Paints  for  Glass.  Take  for  a  blue  pigment 
Prussian  blue,  for  red  crimson  lake,  for  yellow  Indian  yel- 
low, for  brown  burnt  sienna,  for  black  lamp-black,  and  for 
other  shades  a  mixture  of  the  appropriate  colors.  Rub 
them  in  a  size  made  as  follows:  Venice  turpentine  2  ounces, 
oil  of  turpentine  1  ounce,  and  apply  with  a  brush.  For 
temporai-y  purposes,  fine  and  brilliant  colors  are  obtained 
by  dissolving  aniline  dyes  in  white  shellac  varnish,  but 
they  are  fleeting  colors,  and  do  not  always  i)ay  for  the 
trouble. 

Useful  Size.  A  useful  preparatory  size  can  be  made  by 
boiling  a  handful  of  the  leaves  of  wormwood  and  two  or 
three  heads  of  garlic  in  a  quart  of  water,  until  the  liquid 
is  reduced  to  one-half,  then  strain  it  through  a  cloth, 
and   add   half  a  handful  of  common  salt,  and  nearly  half 


USEFUL  INFORMATION  429 

a  pint  of  vinegar.  The  design  of  this  composition,  usually 
employed  in  gilding  looking-glass  and  picture  frames,  is 
to  obviate  the  greasiness  of  the  wood,  and  prepare  it  the 
better  to  receive  the  coats  which  are  to  be  laid  on,  and 
to  preserve  it  from  the  ravages  of  worms.  When  used 
it  is  mixed  with  a  suflicient  portion  of  good  glue,  boiling 
hot.  In  applying  it  to  the  gilding  of  plaster  or  marble, 
the  salt  must  be  left  out  of  its  composition,  as,  in  damp 
situations,  this  would  produce  a  white  saline  efflorescence 
on  the  surface  of  the  gold. 

Varnishes  for  Engravings,  Paints,  and  Maps.  A  piece 
of  plate  glass  is  heated,  and  w^hile  yet  warm  a  little  wax 
rubbed  over  it,  water  is  then  poured  over  the  plate,  the 
moistened  picture  laid  thereon  and  pressed  closely  down 
by  means  of  a  piece  of  filtering  paper.  When  dry  the 
picture  is  removed,  and  will  be  found  to  possess  a  surface 
of  great  brilliancy,  which  is  not  injured  by  the  process  of 
mounting.  Boil  Chio  turpentine  till  brittle,  then  powder 
and  dissolve  in  oil  of  turpentine.  Canada  balsam  and  clear 
white  resin  of  each  6  ounces,  oil  of  turpentine  1  quart,  dis- 
solve. Digest  gum  sandarach  20  parts,  gum  mastic  8  parts, 
camphor  1  part,  with  alcohol  48  parts.  The  map  or  engrav- 
ing must  previously  receive  one  or  two  coats  of  gelatine. 

Waterproof  Glue.  Dissolve  V2  ounce  each  of  gum  san- 
darach and  mastic  in  8  fluid  ounces  of  strong  alcohol,  to 
which  add  I/2  ounce  of  turpentine.  Put  the  dissolved  gums 
into  a  double  glue-pot,  add  by  degrees  a  hot  thick  solution 
of  glue  to  which  isinglass  has  been  added,  stir  the  whole 
over  the  fire  until  all  the  ingredients  are  thoroughly  incor- 
porated. Next  strain  through  a  cloth  while  hot,  and  it  is 
ready  for  use.  It  may  now  be  returned  to  the  glue-pot,  and 
1/^  ounce  of  very  finely  powdered  glass  added  to  it.  It 
should  be  used  quite  hot.  Take  of  shellac  3  parts,  india- 
rubber  1  part  by  weight.  Dissolve  each  separately  in  ether 
free  from  alcohol.  It  is  best  to  do  this  in  stoppered  bot- 
tles and   without  heating,   as  the  ether  readily  evaporates. 


430  CYCLOPEDIA   OF   PAINTING 

When  solution  is  complete,  mix  the  two,  and  keep  well  stop- 
pered for  use. 

Waterproof  Wash  for  Lime.  This  may  be  made  by  mix- 
ing the  powder  from  3  jiarts  rock  quartz,  3  parts  broken 
marble  and  sandstone,  also  2  parts  burned  jDorcelain  clay 
with  3  parts  freshly  slaked  lime,  still  warm.  In  this  way 
a  wash  is  made  Avhich  forms  a  silicate  if  often  wetted,  and 
becomes  finally  like  stone.  It  is  applied  thickly  to  the  sur- 
face, allowed  to  drj*  for  a  day,  and  the  next  day  frequently 
wetted,  which  makes  it  waterproof. 

Whitewash  that  will  not  Rub  off.  Mix  up  half  a  pailful 
of  lime  and  watei',  ready  to  i)ut  on  the  wall,  then  take  Vi 
pint  of  flour,  mix  it  with  water,  tlien  pour  on  it  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  boilini;-  water  to  thicken  it,  and  pour  it  while 
hot  into  the  whitewash,  stir  all  well  together,  and  it  is  ready 
for  use. 

Writing  on  Glass.  To  wiite  on  glass,  or,  as  it  is  prop- 
erly termed,  to  etch,  as  the  letters  are  eaten  out  by  an 
acid,  either  liquid  hydrofluoric  acid  or  hydrotluoric  acid 
gas  is  required,  according  to  the  effect  desired  to  produce. 
The  former  eats  away  the  glass  but  leaves  it  clear,  the  lat- 
ter gives  the  i:)art  operated  upon,  a  ground-glass  appear- 
ance. For  the  first  way,  clean  a  piece  of  glass,  warm  it, 
rub  over  with  white  Avax  or  beeswax,  and  trace  the  letters 
with  a  needle  or  penknife,  going  down  to  the  surface  of  the 
glass,  make  a  wall  of  wax  all  round  the  edge  of  the  glass, 
and  pour  on  hydrofiuoric  acid,  and  leave  for  two  or  three 
hours,  then  clean  with  turpentine.  To  produce  letters  with 
a  ground-glass  a^Dpearance,  place  in  a  leaden  dish  2  parts  of 
powdered  fluoride  of  calcium,  pour  on  3  parts  of  sulphuric 
acid,  and  with  a  stick  mix  into  a  paste.  Prepare  the  glass 
as  before,  except  that  there  is  no  need  for  a  wall  of  wax 
around  the  edges,  cover  the  leaden  vessel  with  this  piece  of 
glass,  and  by  warming  the  vessel  gas  will  be  evolved  which 
will  attack  every  clear  part  of  the  glass.  The  workman  must 
be   very   careful    indeed   in    u'-ine  the   acid,  of  the  gas,  the 


USEFUL   INFORMATION  431 

fumes,  if  breathed,  are  highly  injurious,  causing  ulcers  on 
the  lungs,  whilst  drops  of  the  acid  on  the  skin  will  act 
like  a  red-hot  iron,  and  produce  very  painful  sores,  which 
are  not  very  easily  healed.  Opal  can  also  be  treated  as 
described  above,  and  the  letters  colored  or  enamelled  after- 
wards, or  china  colors  may  be  used  and  the  opal  fired. 
White  letters  on  colored  glass  may  be  obtained  by  using 
flashed  glass,  and  treating  the  flashed  side  with  acid,  which 
is  soon  eaten  through,  leaving  the  plain  glass  underneath. 
Zinc  Sheeting  Paints.  A  very  durable  weathei'-resisting 
paint  for  zinc  sheets  is  made  by  mixing  oxide  of  zinc  with 
a  fluid  silicate,  such  as  water  glass  and  potash  and  soda, 
to  which  the  required  pigments  are  added.  The  proportion 
should  be  about  three-quarters  of  a  pound  of  zinc  white 
to  every  pound  of  silicate,  with  or  without  water.  This  zinc 
silicate  paint  becomes  insoluble  in  water  in  about  twen- 
ty-four hours.  It  is  equally  useful  for  interior  and  outside 
work,  but  it  must  not  be  applied  to  greasy  surfaces,  nor  to 
old  coats  of  paint.  New  zinc,  not  being  oxidized,  should  first 
be  prepared  by  the  application  of  a  solution  of  1  part  of 
soda  in  10  parts  of  water,  and  then  be  thoroughly  washed 
with  water  only.  A  quick  drying,  weather-resisting  paint 
of  dark  color  for  zinc  sheets  is  made  by  mixing  5  pounds 
of  grajDhite  with  1  gallon  of  vinegar.  The  oxidized  surface 
of  the  zinc,  previously  well  brushed,  is  painted  with  the 
above,  one  coat  giving  a  sufficiently  dark  color.  New  sheet 
zinc,  however,  requires  two  coats,  and  must  first  be  oxidized 
by  the  following  application,  which  is  not  strong  enough  to 
cause  any  deterioration  of  the  metal :  1  part  each  of 
chloride  of  copper,  nitrate  of  copper,  and  sal  ammoniac, 
dissolved  in  64  parts  of  water,  and  1  part  of  hydx'ochlorie 
acid   added   to   the   solution. 


INDEX. 


Adulteration  of  Paint 5 

Blistering  of  Paint 10 

Brushes 14 

Calcimining   24 

Carriage  Painting 33 

China  Painting 42 

Colors    48 

Color  Harmony    68 

Color  Mixing  77 

Color  Testing   116 

Estimating    125 

Exterior  Painting— New  Work 129 

Exterior  Painting— Old  Work 142 

Gilding   158 

Graining  172 

Graining — Pollard  and  Knotted  Oak 190 

Graining  Grounds 200 

House  Painting— New  Work 203 

House  Painting— Old   Work 219 

Marbling    224 

Oils  and  Driers 236 

Painting  a  Bath   Tub 250 

Painting  in  Distemper 254 

Pai^erhangers'  Tools    266 

Painters'  Tools   281 

Paperhanging    285 

Pigments    295 

Plain  Oil  Painting 305 

433 


434  INDEX. 

Poor  Tools 317 

Primary  Colors  318 

Priming   322 

Scene  Painting    325 

Sign  Painting  338 

Stains    354 

Staining    361 

Stencilling    369 

Turpentine   375 

Varnishes  377 

Varnishing   383 

Water  Color  Painting 387 

When  Not  to  Paint 395 

Practical  Points  on  Painting .398 

Useful  Information 401 


NOTICE 


To  the  many  workmen  who  are  purchasing  the  publications  under  the 
authorship  of  Fred  T.  Ihulgson,  ami  who  wo  feel  sure  have  been  beneflleil 
by  his  excellent  treatises  on  many  Carpentry  and  HulUIlng  subjects,  we 
desire  to  Inform  them  that  the  following  list,  of  books  have  been  published 
since  lOO:!,  thereby  makhifj;  them  strictly  iipto-datt^  in  every  detail.  All  of 
the  newer  books  bearing  the  imprint  of  Frederick  J.  Drake  &  Co.  are  modern 
in  every  respect  and  of  a  purely  self-educatlonal  character,  expressly  Issued 
for  Home  Study. 

PRACTICAL  USES  OF   THE    STEEL  SQUARE,    two   volumes,    over   500 

pages,  Including  100  per  ei'livo  views  au<l  floor  i)lans  of  medlnin- 
prleed  houses.  Cloth,  two  volumes,  price  $2.00.  Half  leather, 
price  $3.00. 

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Up-lo-Date 


By 

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Over  150 

Illustrations 


A  PRACTICAL  up-to-date  work  on  Sanitary  Plumbine,  com- 
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lead  pipe  joints  and  the  installation  of  hot  and  cold  water  and 
drainage  systems  into  modern  residences.  Including  the 
gravity  tank  supply  and  cylinder  and  tank  system  of  water 
heating  and  the  pressure  cylinder  system  of  water  heating. 
Connections  for  bath  tub.  Connections  for  water  closet. 
Connections  for  laundry  tubs.  Connections  for  wash-bowl  or 
lavatory.  A  modern  bath  room.  Bath  tubs.  Lavatories. 
Closets.  Urinals,  Laundry  tubs.  Shower  baths.  Toilet 
room  in  office  buildings.  Sinks.  Faucets.  Bibb-cocks.  Soil- 
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'  MODERN  ^ 
HOT  WATER  HEATING 
'iTEAMfiOASflTTING 


1bot 

Iheatindt 
Steam 
and  6as 
iFitting 


By  WM.  DOMJiLDSOM 


A  MODERN  treatise  on  Hot  Water,  Steam  and  Furnace 
Heating,  and  Steam  and  Gas  Fitting,  which  is  in- 
tended for  the  use  and  information  of  the  owners  of  build- 
ings and  the  mechanics  who  install  the  heating  plants  in 
them.  It  gives  full  and  concise  information  with  regard 
to  Steam  Boilers  and  Water  Heaters  and  Furnaces,  Pipe 
Systems  for  Steam  and  Hot  Water  Plants,  Radiation,  Radi- 
ator Valves  and  connections.  Systems  of  Radiation,  Heating 
Surfaces,  Pipe  and  Pipe  Fittings,  Damper  Regulators,  Fit- 
ters' Tools,  Heating  Surface  of  Pipes,  Installing  a  Heating 
Plant  and  Specifications.  Plans  and  Elevations  of  Steam 
and  Hot  Water  Heating  Plants  are  shown  and  all  other  sub- 
jects in  the  book  are  fully  illustrated. 

256  pages,  121  illvstrations,  12 mo,  cloth,  price,     $1.50 

Sold  by  Booksellers  generally  cr  sent  postpaid  to 
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yiftodern  Carpentry 

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Vol. 


This  is  a  continuation  of  Mr.  Hodgson's  first  volume  on  Modem 
Carpentry  and  is  intended  to  carry  the  student  to  a  higher  plane 
than  is  reached  by  the  first  volume.     The   first  volume  of  this  series 

mav  be  considered  as  the  al- 
phabet of  the  science  of  car- 
pentry and  joinery,  while  the 
present  volume  leads  the  stu- 
dent into  the  intricacies  of  the 
art  and  shows  how  certain 
difficult  problems  may  be  solved 
with  a  minimum  of  labor. 
Every  progressive  workman  — 
and  especially  those  who  have 
purchased  the  first  volume  of 
this  series  -  cannot  afford  to  be 
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up  at  any  time  during  his  daily 
labors.  The  work  is  well  illustrated  with  over  1 00  diagrams,  sketches 
and  scale  drawings  which  are  fully  described  and  explained  in  the 
text.  Many  puzzling  working  problems  are  shown,  described  and 
solved.  This  is  truly  a  valuable  aid  and  assistant  for  the  progressive 
workman. 

300  pages,  fully  illustrated.      12mo,  cloth,  price,        $1.50 

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®I|^    ^tgntfit  B     l00k    0f    Collected 

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Greek,  Hebrew,  Court  Hand,  Engrossing,  Tuscan,  Riband, 
Gothic,  Rustic,  and  Arabesque,  with  several  Original  De- 
signs and  an  Analysis  of  the  Roman  and  Old  English  Alpha- 
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^r^h^ritk  3.  Brakf  Sc  (tampan^ 

CHICAGO,  u.  s.  A. 


Hie   AMATEUR 

ARTIST 


Or  Oil  and  Water  Color 
Peunting  without  the  Aid 
of  a  Teacher     ::    ::    ::    :: 

By  F.  DELAMOTTE 

^  The  aim  of  this  book  is  to 
instruct  the  student  in  the  fund- 
amental principles  underlying 
tfiose  branches  of  art  of  which  it  treats  and  to  teach  the  application 
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instruction  enough  to  develop  natural  ability  to  a  point  where  the 
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Concretes,  Cements, 

Mort^Lrs, 
Pl^Lsters 
Stviccos 


How  to  Make  and 
How  to  Use  Them 

By 

fred  T.  Hodgson 

Jtrchitect 


THIS  is  another  of  Mr.  Hodeson's  practical  works  that  appeals 
directly  to  the  workman  whose  business  it  is  to  make  and  apply 
the  materials  named  in  the  title.  As  far  as  it  has  been  possible 
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and  theories  of  no  value  to  the  workman,  such  has  been  done,  and 
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work  receive  a  fair  share  of  consideration  and  the  best  methods  of 
making  and  using  are  described  in  the  usual  simple  manner  so 
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number  of  illustrations  of  tools,  appliances  and  methods  employed 
in  making  and  applying  concretes,  cements,  mortars,  plasters  and 
stucco,  which  will  greatly  assist  in  making  it  easy  for  the  student  to 
follow  and  understand  the  text 

300  pages  fully  illustrated. 

12  Mo.  Cloth, Price,  $l.50 

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any  address  upon  receipt  of  price  by  the  Publishers 

Frederick  J.  Drake   ^  Co. 

CHICAGO,  us.  A. 


OInntrartor  s  (^mhi^ 


TO  CORRECT  MEASUREMENTS  of  areas  and 
cubic  contents  in  all  matters  relating  to  buildings  of  any 
kind.  Illustrated  with  numerous  diagrams,  sketches  and 
examples  showing  how  various  and  intricate  measure- 
ments should  be  taken     ::     ::     ::     ::     ::     ::     ::     ::     :: 

By  Fred  T.  Hodgson,  Architect,  and  W.  M.  Brown,  C.E.  and  Quantity  Surveyor 


/jTHIS  is  a  real  practical  book, 
^^  showing  how  all  kinds  of 
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does  not  give  prices,  neither 
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questions  of  labor  or  estimate 
how  much  the  execution  of  cer- 
tain works  will  cost.  It  simply 
deals  with  the  questions  of 
areas  and  cubic  contents  of  any 
given  work  and  shows  how 
their  areas  and  contents  may 
readily  be  obtained,  and  fur- 
nishes for  the  regular  estimator 
the  data  upon  which  he  can 
base  his  prices.  In  fact,  the 
work  is  a  great  aid  and  assist- 
ant to  the  regular  estimator 
and  of  inestimable  value  to  the 
general  builder  and  contractor. 


12mo,  cloth,  300  pages,  fully  illustrated,   price     -     $1.50 

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Easy  Electrical  Experiments 
and  How  to  Make  Them 


3 


By  L.  P.  DICKINSON 

This  is  the  very  latest  and  m'^si 
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and  Practical  Telephones,  Telegraph 
Instruments,  Rheostat,  Condensers,  Electrophorous,' 
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The  book  is  an  elementary  hand  book  of  lessons, 
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Illustrated  with  hundreds  of  fine  drawings;  printed| 
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I2mo  Cloth.       Price,  $1.25. 

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The  Practical  Gas  ^ 
Oil  Engine  ha>td-book 


A 


MANUAL   of  useful  in- 
formation   o  n    the    care, 
maintenance  and  repair  of  Gas 
and  Oil  Engines. 

This  work  gives  full  and 
clear  instructions  on  all  points 
relating  to  the  care,  mainte- 
nance and  repair  of  Stationary, 
Portable  and  Marine,  Gas  and 
Oil  Engines,  including  How  to 
Start,  How  to  Stop,  How  to  Ad- 
just, How  to  Repair,  How  to 
Test. 

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jx^j-:-    ■.••;•/;  g»jB*«TKjjowi  Jj:-.  :•••••        200   pages.    With   numerous 
iV^-:-     ■•••■i-^irt(^3C»Jp^^^^- •■'::•■.:•.        rules   and  formulas    and   dia- 
grams, and  over  50  illustrations 
by    L.   Elliott    Brookes,   au- 
thor of  the  "Construction  of  a 
^j^-:.-:  •:.•'••'•■.•.■•'.■  •'■'."•.•;:.v";''.*:'-"-"i>>'*^^  Gasoline  Motor,"  and  the  "Au- 

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with  the  intention  of  furnishing 
practical  information  regaraing 
gas,  gasoline  and  kerosene  engines,  for  the  use  of  owners,  operators  and 
others  who  may  be  interested  in  their  construction,  operation  and  man- 
agement. 

In  treating  the  various  subjects  it  has  been  the  endeavor  to  avoid  all 
technical  matter  as  far  as  possible,  and  to  present  the  information  given 
in  a  clear  and  practical  manner. 

16mo.    Popula-r  Edition— Cloth.     Price $1.00 

Edition  de  Luxe— Full  Lea.tKer  Limp.     Price 1.56 

Sent  Postpaid  to  any  Address  In  the  World  upon  Receipt  of  Price 

FREDERICK  J.  DRAKE  &  CO. 

PUBLISHERS 

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